COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
DAVIS,  CALIFORNIA 


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JUDGING 
FARM  ANIMALS 


BY 

CHARLES  S.  PLUMB 

\\ 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  College  of  Agriculture 

of  the  Ohio  State  University 
Author  of  "Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,"  Etc. 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

LONDON 

KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH  TRUBNER  &  Co.,  LIMITED 
1920 


ULC. 


COPYRIGHT,  1916, 
BY  CHARLES  S.  PLUMB 

.':///  Rights  Reserved 
[KKTKKI:D  AT  STATIONERS'  IT  ALT.,  LONDON",  ENOT.AKD] 


A6R1C.  DEPT, 


[Printed  in  U.  S.  A.] 


. 

FOREWORD 

T  i  FE  study  of  animal  form  becomes  an  instinctive  process 
on  the  part  cf  most  persons  who  take  a  natural  interest 
in  farm  live  stock.  The  form  and  its  suitability  for  specific 
purposes  is  sure  to  cause  discussion  and  argument,  if  but 
two  parties  are  interested.  Thus  do  men  think  themselves 
critics  and  judges  of  animals,  even  though  their  knowl- 
edge is  based  on  very  limited  experience.  There  are  men, 
however,  who  have  grown  up  among  flocks  and  herds,  who, 
during  the  years,  have  absorbed  wisdom  through  experi- 
ence, and  have  naturally  become  qualified  to  judge  the 
merits  or  demerits  of  certain  kinds  of  animals  with  which 
they  are  familiar. 

Another  class  of  men,  lacking  in  experience,  yet  with 
the  stockman's  instincts,  seek  information  that  will  enable 
them  to  judge  animals  intelligently,  thereby  better  serv- 
ing themselves  and  mankind.  In  the  agricultural  school 
or  college,  this  latter  class  may  secure  systematic  instruc- 
tion relative  to  the  principles  and  practices  of  judging, 
whereby  they  may  become  better  qualified  to  pass  on 
the  comparative  merits  of  farm  animals.  This  volume  is 
intended  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  stockman,  be  he  amateur 
or  professional,  but  more  especially  the  student,  who  ap- 
preciates his  own  limitations,  and  seeks  for  a  more  intelli- 
gent conception  of  the  relationship  of  form  to  function. 

The  subject  of  judging  farm  animals  is,  at  the  present 
time,  receiving  much  attention  among  animal  husbandry 
students  in  our  agricultural  schools  and  colleges.  The 


vi  FOREWORD 

use  of  animals  in  the  class  room  or  laboratory,  and  the 
practice  of  judging  by  students,  is  such  a  comparatively 
new  phase  of  education,  that  it  seems  appropriate  here 
to  refer  to  its  introduction.  In  1891,  the  late  John  A. 
Craig  assumed  the  professorship  in  animal  husbandry,  at 
Wisconsin  University,  and  that  year  began  giving  class- 
room instruction  in  live  stock  judging,  which  was,  so  far 
as  the  writer  is  advised,  the  first  attempt  in  this  field. 
In  1894  Professor  Craig  wrote1  that  this  line  of  teaching, 
though  new,  had  been  tried  by  him  for  three  years,  and 
the  surprising  feature  of  it  was  the  ease  and  pleasure 
in  imparting  knowledge  of  this  kind,  with  the  animals 
before  the  students,  to  analyze  their  points,  as  compared 
with,  the  old  method,  which  deadened  the  mind  and  in- 
terest of  the  student.  In  1892  a  live  stock  judging  con- 
test was  held  in  Wisconsin,  when  the  students  in  the 
College  of  Agriculture  competed  for  a  gold  medal,  offered 
by  Mr.  R.  B.  Ogilvie,  for  the  greatest  proficiency  in  judg- 
ing draft  horses  and  mutton  sheep.  It  was  not  long 
before  the  importance  of  this  class  of  instruction  became 
evident  to  agricultural  educators,  and  courses  in  live 
stock  judging  were  introduced  in  various  colleges,  and 
grew  rapidly  in  popularity.  In  1898  was  held  the  first 
intercollegiate  live  stock  judging  contest,  which  took  place 
at  the  Trans-Mississippi  Exposition,  at  Omaha,  Nebraska, 
where  seventeen  students  from  the  agricultural  colleges  of 
Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  and  Iowa  par- 
ticipated. In  January,  1901,  appeared  the  first  text  on 
the  subject  of  judging  live  stock,  a  most  important  contri- 
bution to  live  stock  literature,  the  work  of  Professor  Craig. 

i  "Breeders'  Gazette,"  April  18,  1894. 


FOREWORD  vii 

At.  the  present  time  departments  of  animal  husbandry  are 
failures  of  all  American  agricultural  colleges,  and  system- 
atic courses  in  judging  farm  animals  are  given,  in  which 
laboratory  practice  is  an  important  feature.  Not  only 
this,  but  thousands  of  young  men  have  already  received 
instruction  in  this  subject  in  our  colleges,  many  of  whom 
are  now  actively  engaged  in  farming,  where  animal  hus- 
bandry is  a  factor,  requiring  a  knowledge  of  form  and 
function. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  the  author  has  had  in 
view  a  purpose,  rather  distinctive  in  itself,  of  discussing, 
,  systematically  and  with  reasonable  completeness,  each  great 
class  of  animals  as  a  separate  part  of  an  important  whole. 
In  each  class,  the  study  of  the  individual,  as  based  on  the 
scale  of  points,  is  followed  by  the  comparative  and  group 
method  of  judging,  so  that  the  man  who  lacks  the  college 
opportunity,  may  find  a  text  that  will  furnish  under  sepa- 
rate heads,  a  systematic  and  comprehensive  discussion  of 
the  entire  subject.  If  one  is  interested  in  but  one  class  of 
stock,  as  for  example  swine,  the  subject  will  be  found  so 
arranged  and  discussed  as  to  meet  his  special  needs.  Inas- 
much as  the  arrangement  of  the  text  is  consistent  with  the 
method  of  presentation  now  most  in  use  in  educational  in- 
stitutions, this  book  should  serve  the  purpose  of  the  student 
as  well  as  the  stockman  afield. 

The  author  has  had  occasion  to  quote  from  many  au- 
thorities, for  which  credit  is  given  in  the  appropriate  place. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  illustrations,  largely  from  photographs 
by  the  author,  may  add  to  the  usefulness  and  efficiency  of 
the  text. 

CHARLES  S.  PLUMB. 

Columbus,  Ohio. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Foreword v 

PART  I.    FORM  AND  FUNCTION. 

I.  The  Study  of  Form  and  Function       1 

II.  The  Score  Card  and  Its  Use 15 

PART  II.     THE  HORSE. 

III.  Man  and  the  Horse       26 

IV.  The  Anatomy  of  the  Horse . .      . .  28 

V.  The  Horse  in  Motion .  *      . .      . .  48 

VI.  The  Types  and  Classes  of  Horses . .  61 

JUDGING  THE  DRAFT  OR  POWER  TYPE  OF  HORSE 
BY  SCALE  OF  POINTS. 

VII.  The   Comparative  Study  of  Draft  Horses     . .  110 

VIII.  Judging  Breeding  Draft  Horses 118 

IX.  Breeds  of  Draft  Horses 123 

\   \X.  Judging  Horses  of  Light  Harness  Type  .  .      . .  130 

\XI.  Judging  Horses  of  Heavy  Harness  Type  . .      . .  148 

XII.  Judging  the  Saddle  J'ype  of  Horse 160 

XIII.  Pony  Types     . .      .  '  .&*&*  ..*$  ^ 170 

XIV.  Judging  Jacks  and  Jennets 175 

XV.  Judging  the  Mule 187 

XVI.  Unsoundness,  Diseases  and  Defects  in  the  Horse  196 

PART  III.    JUDGING  CATTLE. 

XVTI.  The  Anatomy  of  the  Ox     .  .      209 

XArI  II.  The  Classification  of  Domestic  Cattle 216 

XIX.  The  Beef  Carcass  and  Its  Cuts 218 

XX.  Judging  Beef  Tyre  of  Cattle  by  Scale  of  Points  227 

X  XT.  The  Comparative  Study  of  Beef  Cattle  . .      . .  253 

XXII.  Judging  Stocker  or  Feoder  Cattle 257 

ix 


CONTENTS 


XXIII.  Judging  Beef  Cattle  Used  for  Breeding  Pur- 

poses ..................      2.")!) 

XXIV.  Descriptive  Notes  of  the  More  Important  Beef 

Breeds        ................     265 

XXV.  Judging  the  Dairy  Type  of  Cattle  by  Scale  of 

Points         ................     272 

XXVI.  The  Comparative  Study  of  Dairy  Cattle       .  .     313 
XXVII.  Judging  Dairy  Type  Bulls  and  Young  Cattle  .  .     317 
XXVIII.  Descriptive  Notes  on  the  More  Important  Dairy 

Breeds        ................     323 

XXIX.  Judging  Dual-purpose  Cattle     ........     350 

XXX.  Descriptive  Notes  on   Dual-purpose  Breeds  of 

Cattle       ................     355 


PART  IV.    JUDGING  SHEEP 

XXXI.  The  Anatomy  of  the  Sheep  .  .      .  .      ......  361 

XXXII.  How  to  Handle  and  Examine  Sheep  ......  369 

XXXIII.  The  Classification  of  Domestic   Sheep      .  .      .  .  374 

XXXIV.  The  Mutton  Carcass  and  Its  Cuts    ......  375 

XXXV.  Judging  the  Mutton  Type  of  Sheep  by  the  Scale 

of  Points          ..............  380 

XXXVI.  The  Comparative  Study  of  Mutton  Sheep  .  .      .  .  404 

XXXVII.  Judging  Feeder  Sheep  ............  410 

XXXVIII.  Judging  the  Merino  of  the  American  or  Class 

A  Type      ................  412 

XXXIX.  Judging  the  Mutton  Merino  or  Class  C  Type  .  .  420 

XL.  The  Fleece  and  Its  Examination      .  .      .-.      .  .  426 

XLI.  Judging  Breeding  Sheep      .......  -.      .  .  433 

XLIL  Descriptive  Notes  of  the  More  Important  Breeds 

of  Sheep   ................  439 

XLIII.  The  Angora  Goat  ..............  463 

XLIV.  The  Milch  Goat     ..............  466 


PART  V.    JUDGING  SWINE. 

XLV.  The  Anatomy  of  the  Hog  ..........  473 

XLVI.  The  Pork  Carcass  and  Its  Cuts  ........  479 

XL  VII.  The  Common  Types  of  Swine   ........  484 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  PA«E 

XLVI11.  Judging-  the  Lard  Type  of  Swine  by  the  Scale 

of  Points isii 

XL1X.  The  Comparative  Study  of  Swine "><)7 

L.  Descriptive   Notes   on   the   Lard   Type   Breeds 

of  Swine 511 

LI.  Judging  the  Bacon  Type  of  Swine 531 

LI  I.  Judging  Breeding  Swine 542 

L1II.  Descriptive  Notes  on  the  Bacon  Type  Breeds  of 

Swine         548 

APPENDIX. 

Rules  Governing  Live  Stock  Judging  Contests  . .  •">•">.'! 

Rules  for  Boys'  Stock  Judging  Contests  . .      . .  558 
Rules  of  Students'   Contest  in  Judging  Dairy 

Cattle  at  National  Dairy  Show,  1916. .      . .  560 

Age  Classification  in  the  Show  Ring 567 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS. 


PART    I— FORM   AND    FUNCTION. 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  STUDY  OF  FORM  AND  FUNCTION. 

The  relationship  of  form  to  use  in  the  animal  is  quite 
apparent  to  the  person  of  observant  mind.  Scientists  uni- 
versally recognize  that  wild  animals  are  so  constructed  as 
to  be  best  adapted  to  the  special  environment  in  which 
they  are  usually  found.  Our  domestic  animals  are  all 
descended  from  the  wild  forms,  by  a  process  of  evolution 
that  has  taken  place  during  many  centuries.  Each  great 
class  or  group,  such  as  horses  or  cattle,  for  example, 
subjected  to  domestication  and  the  influences  of  man,  has 
gradually  passed  through  important  changes  in  form, 
thereby  better  fitting  the  individual  to  the  special  uses  of 
man.  The  animal  body  is  to  a  degree  plastic  and  subject 
to  variation,  and  thus  it  is  that  largely  through  a  process 
of  artificial  selection  and  environment,  we  have  such  highly 
developed  examples  of  different  types  of  farm  animals. 
This  tendency  of  domestic  animals  to  vary  somewhat  from 
the  parent  type,  has  long  been  a  subject  of  special  study 
by  men  interested  in  evolution  and  improvement.  In  fact 
the  constructive  breeder  has  ever  recognized  that  domestic 
animals  are  subject  to  variation  and  improvement,  and  so 
1ms  nought,  through  successive  generations,  to  produce  re- 
sults that  should  show  the  greatest  perfection.  Not  only 
may  the  animal  form  as  a  whole  be  classified  in  type,  but 


2^  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

the  various  parts  of  the  body,  have  their  special  conforma- 
tions 1  and  values.  The  outline  of  an  animal  of  the  cattle 
group,  for  example,  clearly  indicates  whether  or  not  he 
belongs  to  the  beef  producing  type.  The  separate  mem- 
bers and  parts  of  the  body  also  have  distinctive  and  special 
values  of  their  own,  as  compared  with  similar  parts  in 
cattle  of  another  type.  If  the  hindquarter  is  thick  and 
fleshy,  producing  meat  to  a  marked  degree ;  if  the  back  is 
covered  with  a  deep  layer  of  flesh,  these  parts,  viewed 
separately,  are  as  an  open  book  to  the  experienced  judge, 
who  knows  the  type  of  animal  from  whence  they  came. 
His  knowledge  of  animal  form  and  function  is  such  as  to 
impress  clearly  upon  his  mind  that,  in  nature,  there  is 
always  a  rational  co-relationship  between  the  parts,  where- 
by is  produced  a  whole  that  is  adapted  to  certain  condi- 
tions and  uses.  Cuvier,  the  great  comparative  anatomist, 
claimed  that2  "all  organized  beings,  in  their  structure, 
form  a  complete  system,  of  which  the  parts  mutually  cor- 
respond and  .conduce  to  the  same  definite  action  by  a  recip- 
rocal reaction.  Each  of  these  parts  cannot  be  changed 
without  the  others  changing  also;  and,  by  consequence, 
each  of  these  taken  separately  indicates  and  gives  all  the 
rest."  In  the  complete,  naturally  formed  whole,  we  find 
harmony  of  relationship  in  all  the  parts  to  each  other.  The 
forms  of  our  domestic  animals,  however,  vary  more  or  less, 
both  in  perfection  and  efficiency  of  purpose.  Remarkable 
changes  have  taken  place  during  the  course  of  domesti- 
cation, so  that  we  find  wide  extremes  between  the  wild, 
ancestral  parent,  and  the  most  highly  developed  product 
of  present  day  breeding.  The  contrast  between  the  wild 
hog  and  modern  Berkshire,  or  shaggy  Highland  cattle 
and  the  Holstein-Friesian  of  to-day,  are  striking  illustra- 
tions of  wide  differences  in  type.  Undoubtedly  we  have 
cases  where  the  harmony  of  parts  in  the  animal  form  seems 
lacking,  yet  often  this  is  more  apparent  than  real.  Stu- 

1  Conformation  is  a  word  used  to  express  the  relationship  of  the  various  parts 
to  the  whole. 

2  On  the  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates.     Richard  Owen,  1866.   Vol.  I.,  p.  27. 


• — "Striking  illustrations  of  wide  differences  in  type." 


4  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

dents  of  heredity  accept  this  view.  This  tendency  of  do- 
mestic animals  to  vary  somewhat  from  the  parent  type, 
has  long  been  a  subject  of  special  study  by. the  men  in- 
terested in  evolution  and  improvement.  Occasionally  some 
one  comes  forward  with  a  criticism  of  accepted  standards, 
with  the  argument  that  a  certain  animal  not  representative 
of  the  approved  type,  was  a  producer  of  large  capacity, 
therefore  the  type  should  not  be  a  guide.  The  importance 
of  such  criticism  should  not  be  overestimated.  An  odd 
case  here  and  there  should  not  weigh  heavily  against  the 
cumulative  experience  and  observation  of  the  great  mass 
of  breeders.  Each  breed  has  reached  its  present  status  of 
importance  and  perfection,  through  the  efforts  of  certain 
breeders  who  have  persistently  sought  to  develop  a  con- 
formation that  in  their  judgment  indicated  within  reason- 
able bounds  superior  producing  capacity.  No  man  at  all 
familiar  with  the  Thoroughbred,  a  very  distinctive  race 
horse,  would  expect  to  find  vital  differences  in  the  forms  of 
many  individuals  of  this  breed.  The  variations  that  did 
exist  would  only  affect  in  a  minor  degree  the  purpose  for 
which  this  breed  is  produced,  namely  speed.  As  to 
whether  a  Thoroughbred,  however,  can  run  a  mile  in  two 
minutes  or  three,  is  dependent  on  the  proportion  and  ad- 
justment of  minor  parts,  which  may  combine  to  make  the 
most  perfect  and  rapid  moving  horsepower.  Therefore  the 
work  of  the  student,  is  to  study  the  adjustment  of  the  parts 
to  each  other,  and  ascertain  their  relationship  to  the  whole, 
and  their  combined  powers  of  production. 

Beauty  and  balance  of  form  may  be  very  generally 
regarded  as  associated  with  the  most  desirable  sex  character 
and  capacity  to  produce.  In  the  opinion  of  the  qualified 
judge,  a  breeding  male  could  not  be  beautiful,  with  a  head 
showing  lack  of  character  and  masculinity.  While  men 
differ  somewhat  in  their  measurements  of  beauty,  whether 
applied  to  the  fine  arts  or  to  living  animals,  there  is  no 
serious  disagreement  among  them  as  to  the  main  facts. 
In  the  public  show  ring,  where  competition  of  a  worthy 


THE   STUDY   OF    FORM    AND   FUNCTION  5 

character  prevails,  and  where  qualified  judges  preside,  the 
most  beautiful  and  perfectly  balanced  animals  find  their 
places  in  relative  order  of  merit.  In  recent  years  the 
criticism  has  been  made,  that  dairy  cattle  judges  have  often 
given  preference  to  beauty  rather  than  utility.  This  has 
been  applied  especially  to  judges  of  Ayrshire  and  Jersey 
i-iiillo  and  in  a  limited  degree  to  judges  of  Clydesdale 
horses.  Refinement  of  form,  beauty  of  head,  and  highly 
developed  fore  udder,  have  been  sought  for  in  the  Island 
.Jersey  and  the  Scotch  bred  Ayrshire.  The  criticism  has 
been  made  that  the  cows  showing  these  characteristics  in 
the  greatest  perfection,  are  less  profitable  than  some  of 
the  plainer  sort.  This  is  perhaps  true  in  a  degree.  How- 
ever, there  is  no  good  reason  why  it  should  be  so.  The 
great  improvement  that  has  resulted  from  years  of  careful 
breeding,  since  the  formative  periods  of  the  breeds,  has 
undoubtedly  given  important  recognition  to  the  relation- 
ship of  beauty  to  utility.  This  has  been  aptly  brought  out 
by  Mr.  James  M.  Codman,  a  well-known  Guernsey  breeder, 
who  says:3  "The  most  perfect  utility  is  distinct  from 
beauty  and  is  not  synonymous  with  it.  You  may  have  the 
two  at  the  same  time,  but  no  process  can  make  them  the 
same  thing.  Look  at  the  early  pictures  of  the  scrawny, 
misshapen  cows  of  the  Channel  Islands,  and  contrast  them 
with  the  beauty  developed  to-day,  and  they  have  not  lost 
productive  capacity — probably  gained  in  it.  I  think  we 
are  indebted  to  the  Jersey  breeders  on  that  island  for  show- 
ing what  could  be  done  by  the  hand  of  man  by  selection  in 
adding  beauty  to  utility.  Guernsey  breeders  have  accom- 
plished Hie  same  result,  though  with  a  different  idea  in 
view.  Of  course  there  are  inferior  animals  still  left;  it  is 
to  be  hoped  that  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  for  them  to 
disappear." 

Commenting  editorially  on  a  statement  credited  to  Mr. 
C.  L.  Hill,  a  noted  Wisconsin  Guernsey  breeder  and  judge, 
that  he  could  see  no  reason  why  cows  cannot  be  high-class 

3  Guernsey  Breeders'   Sale  List  Bulletin,  May,  1909. 


fi  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

producers  and  at  the  same  time  conform  to  the  present  day 
show  standards,  Hoard's  Dairyman  says:4  "One  of  the 
reasons  why  the  cow  cannot  be  a  good  producer  and  still 
conform  to  the  show  ring  standard,  is  that  there  is  no  show 
ring  standard.  No  two  judges  will  judge  alike.  Animals 
that  at  one  show  ring  receive  first  place,  at  another  will 
receive  second  or  third  place.  We  hear  much  talk  about 


Fig.  2. — Dale,  the  Hereford.  "It  will  not  be  a  difficult  task  to  bring  for- 
ward the  names  of  many  great  sires  and  dams  that  judges  have  repeatedly 
agreed  upon  as  the  best  of  their  kind." 

the  ' beauty  of  form.'  If  judging  were  confined  to  that, 
there  would  be  much  greater  uniformity  of  judgment,  yet 
no  two  judges  will  agree  upon  what  is  really  and  truly 
handsome. ' ' 

Among  the  noted  show  animals  of  the  different  breeds 
may  be  found,  not  only  the  world 's  greatest  prize  winners, 
but  also  the  most  beautiful  specimens.  It  will  not  be  a 

*  December   13,   1912. 


THE   STUDY  OF   FORM   AND   FUNCTION  7 

difficult  task  to  bring  forward  the  names  of  many  great 
sires  and  dams  that  judges  have  repeatedly  agreed  upon 
as  the  best  of  their  kind  when  exposed  to  the  competition 
of  the  show  ring.  Brilliant  the  Percheron,  Darnley  the 
Clydesdale,  Royal  Danegelt  the  Hackney,  Avondale  the 
Shorthorn,  Dale  the  Hereford,  Lucy 's  Prince  the  Aberdeen- 
Angus,  Pedro  the  Jersey,  Sarcastic  Lad  the  Holstein-Frie- 
sian,  Island  Champion  the  Guernsey,  and  Howie's  Fizz- 
away  the  Ayrshire,  each  won  the  highest  honors  in  the 
greatest  shows,  and  were  universally  regarded  as  beautiful 
specimens  of  the  breed.  Not  only  that,  but  each  is  a  fam- 
ous sire.  To  be  sure  there  are  many  examples  of  animals 
that  have  been  shown,  on  which  judges  have  disagreed  in 
their  estimates.  These  as  a  rule,  however,  have  not  been 
above  justifiable  criticism.  However,  most  thinking  men 
will  agree  that  beauty  of  form  and  utility  are  closely  as- 
sociated, and  the  lower  the  measure  of  beauty  the  less  as 
a  rule  may  be  anticipated  in  the  producing  capacity. 

The  efficient  judge  is  a  student  of  animal  form  and 
function.  Efficiency  increases  with  careful  observation  and 
study.  However,  no  person  can  be  really  qualified  for  the 
responsibilities  of  the  official  judge  unless  gifted  with  the 
instinctive  knowledge  of  the  true  stockman.  That  is  to 
say,  one  must  naturally  and  quickly  grasp  the  real  merits 
to  be  seen  in  the  animal,  irrespective  of  show  ring  prepara- 
tion, or  an  attractive  condition  of  flesh.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  man  who  has  a  love  for  dumb  animals,  is  very 
much  more  likely  to  see  the  value  in  them,  than  the  man 
who  lacks  sympathetic  sense.  The  desire  to  keep  in  contact 
with  the  animal,  to  study  its  form  and  measure  its  use- 
fulness,— these  are  characteristics  of  the  judge,  be  he  a 
college  freshman,  or  a  man  crowned  with  years  of  experi- 
ence as  a  breeder  or  judge.  Among  the  boys  who  come  as 
students  to  the  college  of  agriculture,  and  who  are  found 
most  frequently  in  and  about  the  stables,  taking  every 
chance  to  study  the  stock  and  absorb  ideas  from  contact 
with  the  herdsmen,  will  be  found  the  most  efficient  judges 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  3. — "One  must  naturally  and  quickly 
grasp  the  real  merits  to  be  seen  in  the  animal." 
(Courtesy  Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 


of  the  future.  Not 
only  this,  but  a 
knowledge  of  the 
bony  and  muscular 
structures,  and 
their  relationship, 
of  the  limbs  and 
the  effect  of  posi- 
tion on  production, 
these  and  other 
features  of  the  ani- 
mal body  are  rea- 
sonably well  under- 
stood by  the  man 
who  is  qualified  to 
pass  in  judg- 
ment  on  domestic 
animals. 

The  well-informed  judge  will  be  familiar  with  changes  in 
breed  types  or  fashions.  While  all  breeds  have  undergone 
distinct  changes  and  improvements,  during  the  course  of 
time,  in  certain  respects  some  of  these  changes  have  been 

matters  of  fashion  

rather  than  of  eco- 
nomic importance. 
The  decree  of  fash- 
ion was  largely  re- 
sponsible for  the 
short,  dished  head 
so  much  desired 
among  Berkshire 
breeders ;  for  the 
cap  of  wool  over 
the  head  and  face 
of  the  Shropshire 

,.    ,  Fig.  4. — The  same  horse  as  Fig.  3,  after  being 

high,      Snort     Knee          fattened.    (Courtesy  Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 


THE   STUDY  OF    FORM    AND   Fl'NCTIOX  9 

action  of  the  Hackney,  and  for  the  preponderance  <»!' 
large  white  markings  in  the  coat  of  hair  of  the  Ayrshire. 
Referring  to  this  matter  of  style,  Mr.  W.  J.  Clarke,  a 
prominent  sheep  authority,  well  says : 5  '  *  In  these  days 
of  rapid  progress,  fashion  asserts  her  sway,  even  on 
subjects  pertaining  to  shepherding.  The  type  of  some 
of  our  leading  mutton  breeds  of  sheep  has  undergone 


Fig.  5. — Holehouse  White  Bess,  the  Ayrshire.    "The  preponderance  of  large, 
white  markings  in  the  coat  of  hair."  (Courtesy  Branford  Farms.) 

a  decidedly  marked  change  and  great  improvement 
during  the  past  ten  years;  therefore,  it  can  easily  be 
understood  why,  to  become  a  really  expert  judge  of  a 
breed,  it  requires  thought,  observation,  and  the  con- 
stant handling  and  studying  of  a  breed  to  thoroughly 
understand  the  true  type  that  fashion  dictates  as  being  the 
correct  one  of  to-day.  Whilst  in  fat  stock  contests  the  mut- 

5  Fitting  Sheep  for  Show  Ring  and  Market,  1900,  p.  9. 


10  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

ton  conformation  of  the  animal  is  the  leading  consideration, 
in  breed  contests  the  embellishments  that  must  accompany 
true  mutton  form  in  the  make-up  of  a  typical  show  animal, 
must  be  given  due  consideration. ' ' 

Some  animals  have  serious  defects  that  should  be  seen. 
These  may  be  natural  or  unnatural.  One  might  regard  a 
short,  steep  pastern  on  a  saddle  horse,  or  a  very  poor  front 
udder  on  a  cow,  or  a  very  long  snout  on  a  Berkshire  boar, 
as  defects,  yet  of  a  natural  sort  that  could  not  be  classed 
as  a  blemish.  However,  the  horse  afflicted  with  a  bone 
spavin,  or  the  cow  with  an  udder  having  a  milkless  quarter, 
would  certainly  be  charged  with  defects.  These,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  critics,  would  amount  to  positive  blemishes, 
and  seriously  affect  selling  values.  One  of  the  problems 
which  confront  the  judge,  is  that  of  weighing  up  and  giv- 
ing proper  estimate  of  defective  characteristics.  "While 
animals  with  blemishes  may  be  quickly  set  aside  as  un- 
worthy of  consideration,  the  judge  may  find  it  necessary 
to  give  ratings  to  individuals  with  ill  form  or  natural  de- 
fects. Exhibitors  who  are  not  over  scrupulous,  often  try 
to  take  advantage  of  an  easygoing  or  superficial  judge. 
The  fact  is,  all  animals  with  known  defects  of  importance 
should  be  barred  from  the  show  ring.  The  methods  in  op- 
eration in  certain  horse  shows,  of  compelling  exhibitors 
to  submit  their  horses  to  qualified  veterinary  inspection 
to  pass  on  their  soundness  before  allowing  them  to  compete 
in  the  show  ring,  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction.  The 
work  of  the  English  Hackney  Horse  Society  in  this  re- 
spect, has  been  productive  of  great  good. 

Men  become  efficient  judges  by  specializing  rather  than 
otherwise.  As  a  rule  one  finds  much  to  do  in  becoming 
proficient  within  a  single  type  or  breed.  Those  men  who 
are  recognized  as  the  best  qualified  judges,  and  who  are 
most  in  demand  at  the  more  important  shows,  either  re- 
strict themselves  to  one  general  type  or  to  one  breed.  A  man 
may  be  an  expert  judge  of  dairy  cattle,  but  he  is  not  likely 
to  be  equally  good  as  a  judge  of  beef  type.  Some  exhibit- 


THE  STUDY  OF   FORM   AND   FUNCTION  H 

ors  believe  that  the  breeds  shown  by  them  should  be 
judged  only  by  practical  breeders  of  these  respective 
breeds.  Occasionally  a  breed  association  will  urge  fair  or 
live  stock  show  officials  to  appoint  a  certain  man  for  judge, 
on  account  of  his  reputation  as  a  breeder  and  judge  of  that 
breed.  Some  stockmen  are  very  reluctant  to  show,  where 
their  exhibit  is  to  be  judged  by  one  associated  with  another 
breed.  For  example :  a  Poland  China  breeder  does  not 
care  to  have  his  stock  judged  by  a  Berkshire  man,  neither 
does  an  exhibitor  of  Percherons  wish  his  stock  to  be  rated 
by  a  specialist  in  Clydesdales,  and  very  few  men  showing 
Merino  sheep  would  care  to  have  a  Cotswold  breeder 
serve  as  judge  on  their  fine  wools.  This  represents  a  very 
common  opinion  among  professional  stockmen.  During 
recent  years,  or  since  the  animal  husbandry  departments 
of  our  colleges  have  been  established,  instructors  in  this 
field  have  in  many  cases  been  acceptable  judges  at  live  stock 
shows.  These  instructors  are,  as  a  rule,  free  from  preju- 
dice, and  are  often  regarded  as  capable  of  passing  fairly 
and  intelligently  on  several  different  types  and  breeds. 
However,  such  a  specialist  as  a  rule  has  a  reputation  for 
proficiency  in  judging  some  one  type  or  class,  and  does  not 
willingly  officiate  otherwise,  unless  under  unusual  cir- 
cumstances. If  then  the  demand  is  for  the  judge  in  the 
special  rather  than  the  general  field,  it  behooves  the  amateur 
judge  to  concentrate  his  efforts  to  become  a  proficient 
specialist.  Contact  with  a  breed  on  all  possible  occasions, 
and  cultivating  the  acquaintance  and  friendship  of  breed- 
ers and  herdsmen,  will  add  greatly  to  a  student's  store  of 
knowledge  and  render  him  more  and  more  efficient.  If 
one  who  is  also  gifted  with  a  reasonably  good  judicial  tem- 
perament, will  persistently  adhere  to  this  plan,  he  should 
become  in  time  a  judge  of  signal  ability  and  more  than 
local  reputation. 

The  decision  of  the  judge  should  be  reached  after  care- 
ful consideration,  and  should  be  final.  He  should  be  well 
fortified  in  his  reasons,  and  being  so,  should  not  feel  doubt- 


12 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


ful  about  himself.  Very  naturally  judges  of  live  stock  often 
differ  in  their  point  of  view ;  but  why  should  they  not,  as 
long  as  judges  are  but  human  and  not  infallible  ?  It  is  no 
uncommon  occurrence  for  one  judge  of  points  of  law  to 
reverse  the  decision  of  another  judge.  "We  maintain  vari- 
ous grades  of  courts  up  to  the  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
in  order  that  a  previous  judgment  may  be  reconsidered. 
Furthermore,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  decision  of 
the  judge  at  a  live  stock  show  is  simply  his  own,  and  is  so 
rendered.  It  would  be  a  strange  judge  who  thought  his 
each  and  every  decision  was  to  be  approved  by  all  the 
critics.  True,  his  work  as  a  whole  will  meet  with  com- 
mendation, if  his  judgment  is  good,  but  with  the  general 
opportunity  for  difference  of  opinion  in  the  show  ring,  a 
judge  should  not  be  mentally  disturbed  if  others  see  some 
things  from  a  different  view-point.  It  may  be  desirable  for 
the  judge  to  give  public  expression  of  his  reasons  for  his 
placings.  In  doing  so,  he  has  the  opportunity  to  make  it 


Fig.  6. — "His  work,  as  a  whole,  will  meet  with  commendation  if  his  judg- 
ment is  good." 


THE   STUDY  OF   FORM   AND   FUNCTION  13 

clear  to  both  exhibitor  and  spectator  that  he  knows  wlwl 
he  is  about,  and  that  his  decisions  are  not  based  on  guess- 
work. This  method  is  educational  in  value,  and  is  to  be 
commended,  and  should  be  a  feature  of  all  shows  where- 
ever  possible.  The  reasons  for  the  judge's  decisions  are 
usually  listened  to  with  much  interest  by  the  exhibitors 
and  visitors  at  the  ring  side.  The  only  persons  liable  to 
take  exception  to  this  method,  are  exhibitors  who  do  not 
feel  satisfied  with  the  decisions  of  the  judge,  and  who  do 
not  enjoy  having  attention  directed  to  the  defects  which 
may  have  been  the  cause  of  the  subordinate  position  given 
their  animals. 

Competent  live  stock  critics  or  judges  in  a  community 
are  an  evidence  of  the  presence  of  superior  live  stock  there- 
abouts. Qualified  critics  usually  seek  for  superior  rather 
than  inferior  animals.  One  may  be  reasonably  sure  that 
in  a  locality  where  many  good  herds  and  flocks  are  to  be 
found,  will  also  be  found  a  class  of  stockmen  who  dis- 
criminate wisely  in  their  selections.  This  being  so,  then 
from  an  economic  point  of  view,  it  is  distinctly  desirable 
to  have  educated  men  in  the  community  who  will  under- 
stand the  relationship  of  form  to  function,  and  who  will 
know  how  to  apply  their  knowledge  in  a  practical  way. 
This  knowledge  applied,  will  result  in  attractive  herds,  in 
a  community  reputation  of  an  enviable  sort,  and  in  fre- 
quent visits  of  stockmen  who  will  come  to  purchase  and 
who  will  pay  superior  rather  than  inferior  prices.  Such  a 
condition  will  surely  cause  prosperity,  but  it  cannot  be 
accomplished  excepting  on  the  principle  that  superior 
herds  can  only  be  produced  by  superior  judges  of  animal 
form  and  production.  Hence,  the  worth  of  the  educated 
judge  and  his  help  to  a  community. 

The  demand  for  expert  judges  of  live  stock  is  very 
widespread.  There  are  thousands  of  local  fairs  in  America 
where  animals  are  exhibited  to  be  judged.  There  are 
also  large  state  fairs  and  live  stock  expositions,  where  se- 
vere competitions  commonly  take  place.  The  live  stock  in 


14  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

each  of  these  shows  should  be  passed  upon  by  judges  who 
are  well  qualified  to  render  intelligent  and  fair  decisions. 
Each  year  fair  and  live  stock  officials  seek  the  services  of 
judges  to  do  this  work,  and  among  the  men  employed  will 
be  many  who  have  received  inspiration  and  instruction 
while  in  the  agricultural  college.  In  recent  years,  breed 
associations  have  seen  fit  to  nominate  certain  men  for  pub- 
lic service  as  judges,  usually  selecting  those  best  known  and 
most  familiar  with  the  breeds  in  question.  Two  of  the  most 
important  associations  holding  live  stock  shows  in  Ameri- 
ca, the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition,  and  the  Na- 
tional Dairy  Show  Association,  appoint  their  judges  on 
the  basis  of  breed  association  recommendations.  It  is  no 
doubt  true,  that  each  year  sees  increased  care  in  the  selec- 
tion of  judges,  and  a  more  efficient  service  rendered  to  our 
live  stock  interest  in  the  work  they  do.  To  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  this  demand  for  qualified  judges,  should  be 
the  ambition  of  every  man  who  desires  to  serve  in  the 
capacity  of  an  expert  judge. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  SCORE   CARD  AND  ITS  USE. 

The  scale  of  points  is  a  systematic,  logical,  brief  descrip- 
tion of  an  ideal  animal  of  a  breed  or  type,  in  which  the 
several  parts  described  are  given  numerical  values,  A 
standard  of  excellence  is  another  expression  sometimes  used 
to  designate  scale  of  points;  although  there  are  standards 
in  which  no  points  are  made  use  of ;  they  are  in  fact  simply 
very  brief  official  descriptions  of  certain  breeds,  in  which 
no  measurements  of  values  are  given.  Some  of  the  British 
breed  associations  use  the  standard  of  excellence,  rather 
than  a  scale  of  points. 

The  score  card  is  a  card  on  which  values  are  registered 
to  the  credit  of  an  animal  measured  by  the  standard  of  a 
scale  of  points.  This  scale  is  the  one  vital  factor  of  the 
score  card.  Therefore,  when  we  speak  of  score  card,  we 
always  associate  with  it  a  definite  scale  of  excellence  rep- 
resenting perfection,  which  is  used  for  comparison  with  the 
animal  judged. 

The  earliest  use  of  the  scale  of  points  was  probably  ap- 
plied to  Jersey  cattle.  In  1833  an  agricultural  and  horti- 
cultural society  was  organized  on  the  Island  of  Jersey,  one 
of  the  Channel  Islands  off  the  coast  of  France.  One  of  the 
purposes  of  this  organization  was  to  improve  the  native 
breed  of  cattle  on  Jersey.  In  discussions  regarding  methods 
of  improvement,  the  suggestion  was  made  that  it  would 
be  highly  desirable  if  some  standard  of  excellence  or 
scale  of  points  could  be  devised,  that  would  serve  as  a 
guide  for  the  breeders  on  the  island.  Accordingly  a  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  draw  up  a  standard.  The  method 
used  was  original  and  unique.  It  is  said  that  'the  best  two 
bulls  and  the  best  two  cows  on  the  island  were  selected 
to  be  used  as  models.  One  of  each  sex  was  regarded  as 

15 


16  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

perfect  in  the  barrel  and  front  parts,  and  the  other  in  the 
hindquarters.  The  best  breeders  and  dealers  on  the  island 
were  freely  consulted,  and  on  January  18,  1834,  a  scale 
of  points  for  bulls  and  another  for  cows,  was  adopted  by 
the  Society.  In  view  of  its  historical  importance,  this  scale 
of  points  as  applied  to  one  sex,  is  herewith  reproduced.  A 
comparison  with  the  more  recent  scale  of  points  is  of 
interest. 

ORIGINAL  SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  JERSEY  COWS  AND 
HEIFERS 

1.  Breed  on  male  and  female  sides  reputed  for  producing  rich 

and  yellow  butter 4 

2.  Head  small,  fine  and  tapering;  eye  full  and  lively;  muzzle 

fine  and  encircled  with  white;  horns  polished  and  a  little 
crumpled,  tipped  with  black;  ears  small  and  of  an  orange 
color  within  8 

3.  Back  straight  from  the  withers  to  the  setting-on  of  the  tail; 

chest  deep,  and  nearly  of  line  with  the  belly 4 

4.  Hide  thin,  movable,  but  not  too  loose,  well  covered  with  fine 

and  soft  hair  of  good  color 2 

5.  Barrel  hooped  and  deep,  well  ribbed  home,  having  but  little 

space  between  the  ribs  and  hips;  tail  fine,  hanging  two 
inches  below  the  hock 3 

6.  Forelegs  straight  and  fine;  thighs  full  and  long,  close  to- 

gether when  viewed  from  behind;  hind  legs  short  and 
bones  rather  fine,  hoofs  small,  hind  legs  not  to  cross  in 
walking  2 

7.  Udder  full,  well  up  behind;  teats  large  and  squarely  placed, 

being  wide  apart;  milk  veins  large  and  swelling  . .      . .       4 

Perfection   for   cows 27 

Two  points  shall  be  deducted  from  the  number  required  for  per- 
fection in  heifers,  as  their  udder  and  milk  veins  cannot  be  fully 
developed.  A  heifer  therefore  will  be  considered  perfect  at  25 
points. 

The  early  scales  of  points,  were  found  to  be  of  much 
service  to  the  people.  When  cattle  were  judged  they  were 
compared  with  the  official  scale  of  points.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  -that  this  standard  contains  in  general  the  es- 
sential features  of  the  Jersey  scale  of  points  of  the  present 
day.  Naturally  with  use  it  was  found  that  the  standard 
of  excellence  first  adopted  might  be  improved.  According- 


THE  SCORE  CARD   AND   ITS   USE  17 

ly  we  find  that  the  scales  of  points  were  revised  a  num- 
ber of  different  times.  In  1875  the  total  number  of  points 
in  the  perfect  animal  was  increased  to  100,  a  standard  for 
perfection  in  common  use  to-day  with  all  breeds. 

The  systematic  arrangement  of  the  scale  of  points  for 
the  different  types  and  breeds  of  animals,  is  considerably 
improved  over  the  score  card  of  1834.  Now  it  is  custom- 
ary, first  to  consider  the  general  appearance  of  an  animal, 
then  follow  with  detailed  study  of  the  several  important 
parts,  each  of  which  is  in  turn  separately  studied  and 
measured.  One  hundred  very  generally  represents  the 
total  number  of  points  used  in  the  scale  measuring  up  the 
ideal  or  model  animal.  Thus  a  certain  score  card  is  di- 
vided into  the  following  five  great  parts: 

Points 

A.  General  appearance       30 

B.  Head  and  neck       8 

C.  Forequarters 12 

D.  Body         33 

E.  Hindquarters          17 

Total 100 

Each  of  these  parts  is  sub-divided  for  more  detailed 
analysis.  In  the  above,  D,  the  body,  is  credited  with  33 
points,  sub-divided  as  follows : 

Points 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth 4 

Sides,  deep,  full,  smooth,  medium  length 8 

Back,  broad,  strongly  arched,  thickly  and  evenly  cov- 
ered         * 9 

Loin,  wide,  thick,  strong 9 

Belly,  straight,  smooth,  firm 3 

Total 33 

The  above  is  merely  given  as  illustrative  of  how  the 
present  day  score  card  is  constructed,  irrespective  of  type 
or  breed.  This  is  a  logical  method,  whereby  the  student 
or  person  using  the  scale  of  points,  considers  the  animals 
by  the  most  simple  and  comprehensive  system.  This  ar- 


18  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

rangement  of  the  scale  of  points  is  the  result  of  careful 
study  and  use,  and  meets  with  the  general  approval  of 
present  day  students  of  animal  form.  If  one  will  but  com- 
pare the  first  scale  of  points,  on  page  16,  with  that  of  the 
dairy  cow  on  page  275,  the  superior  arrangement  of  the 
one  over  the  other  will  be  clearly  seen. 

Breed  standards  are  usually  expressed  through  the 
scale  of  points.  Many  breeds  have  standard  official  de- 
scriptions, although  most  of  the  breeds  of  horses  and  beef 
cattle  have  thus  far  adopted  nothing  of  the  kind.  Such 
great  breeds  as  the  Percheron,  Clydesdale  and  Shorthorn, 
have  none.  The  breed  score  cards  vary  considerably  in 
make-up  and  style  of  expression.  Many  of  them  begin  with 
the  head,  and  then  in  sequence,  in  more  or  less  detail, 
specify  the  conformation  and  character  of  each  part  from 
front  to  rear.  Especial  emphasis  is  usually  placed  on  that 
feature  regarded  as  of  much  importance  in  the  breed,  as 
the  udder  and^  veins  in  Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  or  wool 
with  Merino  sheep,  or  the  back  and  loin  of  the  Poland- 
China  hog. 

Conditions  of  disqualification  of  representatives  of 
certain  breeds,  are  specified  in  connection  with  the  scale  of 
points.  These  disqualifying  clauses  are  especially  intro- 
duced as  features  of  the  scales  of  points  of  most  breeds  of 
swine.  For  example,  one  of  the  Poland-China  Associations 
has  published  disqualification  definitions  as  applied  to 
form,  size,  condition,  score  and  pedigree.  That  for  condi- 
tion is  as  follows:  "Excessive  fatness;  barrenness;  de- 
formed; seriously  diseased;  total  blindness,  caused  by  de- 
fective eyes,  or  by  reason  of  fat  or  loose  and  wrinkled  skin 
over  the  eyes."  Disqualification  should  be  applied  to  the 
representative  of  any  breed,  that  does  not  conform  to  the 
established  standard,  or  is  defective  in  any  particular. 

The  method  of  using  the  score  card,  whereby  an  animal 
is  compared  with  the  ideal  set  forth  in  the  scale  of  points, 
should  be  the  first  lesson  in  a  systematic  study  of  judging. 
Perhaps  one  of  the  simplest,  shortest  examples  of  a  scale 


THE  SCORE  CARD  AND   ITS   USE 


19 


Fig.  7. — "Disqualification  should  be  applied  to  the  representative  of  any 
breed  that  does  not  conform  to  the  established  standard,  or  i.s  deject  iff  in 

a/*.'/  particular.'' 

of  points,  is  that  of  the  Shetland  Pony,  as  adopted  by  the 
American  Shetland  Pony  Club,  which  is  as  follows: 


SCALE  OF   POINTS  FOR   SHETLAND   PONY. 


POINTS    SCORED 


Perfect 

Score 


1.  Constitution — Constitution       indicated       by       general 

healthy  appearance,  perfect  respiration,  bright- 
ness of  eyes 10 

2.  Size — Ponies  over  four  years  old,  42  inches  and  under 

in  height,  two  points  to  be  deducted  for  every 
inch  over  42  inches  up  to  46  inches,  fractional 
portions  to  count  as  full  inches .  .  25 

3.  Head — Head   symmetrical,   rather   small   and  fine,   wide 

between  eyes,  ears  short  and  erect 10 

4.  Body — Barrel     well    rounded,     back     short     and    level, 

deep  chested,  good  breast,  compact,  "pony 
build"  10 

5.  Legs — Legs  muscular,   flat  boned,  hind  legs  not   cow- 

hocked  or  too  crooked 25 

G.    Mane  and  tail — Foretop,  mane  and  tail  heavy   .  .       .  .      10 
7.    Feet — Good  10 


Score  of 
Animal 
Studied 


Total.  .  ....    100 


20  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Under  " Points  Scored"  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are 
seven  features  of  the  animal  to  be  considered,  viz.:  con- 
stitution, size,  head,  body,  legs,  mane  and  tail,  and  feet. 
Each  of  these  features  as  found  in  the  perfect  animal  is 
given  numerical  value  which  the  stockman  refers  to  as 
"points."  The  number  10  under  the  column  "Perfect 
Score"  is  the  number  of  points  credit  given  a  pony  of 
perfect  constitution.  If  the  pony  does  not  seem  as 
healthy  or  as  vigorous  as  might  be  expected,  or  if  the  eyes 
are  lacking  in  brightness,  then  the  animal  cannot  be  given 
full  credit  in  this  particular.  Hence  one  should  give  such 
a  score  as  in  his  judgment  would  measure  the  constitution 
of  the  pony  being  judged.  Perhaps  seven  points  would 
fairly  represent  this,  and  so  this  figure  should  be  placed  in 
the  column  headed  "Score  of  Animal,"  opposite  the  ten 
points  for  perfection.  Thus  one  goes  through  the  scale  of 
points,  carefully  comparing  the  animal  under  consideration 
with  the  standard,  giving  a  numerical  measure  of  value  to 
each  part,  in  systematic  order,  and  placing  each  figure  in 
the  column  headed  "Score  of  Animal."  If  in  scoring  a 
pony,  one  came  to  the  conclusion  that  each  part  was  per- 
fect, and  could  not  be  improved,  then  he  should  give  the 
full  score  in  each  case.  This  animal  would  then  be  credi- 
ted with  one  hundred  points,  and  be  rated  as  perfect.  But 
we  have  no  perfect  ponies.  The  live  stock  critic  can  always 
find  some  points  for  improvement.  The  ears  may  be  a 
trifle  long,  the  back  not  quite  level  enough,  or  the  feet  too 
flat.  Thus  the  judge  finds  his  reasons  for  less  points  than 
100.  After  scoring,  the  column  of  figures  which  the  judge 
has  made  is  added  and  placed  in  the  line  marked  "total," 
for  comparison  with  the  perfect  total.  A  total  of  90  would 
be  a  high  score,  for  very  few  animals  measure  up  to  such  a 
standard  of  excellence  if  given  a  careful,  seasoned  judg- 
ment. 

The  value  of  the  score  card  lesson  largely  lies  in  teach- 
ing the  beginner  the  location  of  the  various  parts  and  how 
to  study  them  by  a  logical,  well  established  system.  Those 


THE   SCORE   CARD   AND    ITS   USE  21 

score  cards  which  describe  and  measure  the  parts  and 
characteristics  of  the  types  of  animals,  are  as  a  rule  more 
systematic  and  better  balanced  than  those  applied  to  most 
of  the  breeds.  The  scales  of  points  of  some  breeds,  as 
established  by  breed  associations,  are  open  to  severe  criti- 
cism. They  lack  in  orderly  arrangement,  in  clearness  of 
description,  and  in  logical  measure  of  value.  Therefore  it 
will  be  a  wise  policy  for  young  judges  to  begin  score  card 
work  with  the  scales  of  points  applied  to  the  types,  such 
as  are  in  common  use  in  agricultural  schools  and  colleges, 
an  example  of  which  is  to  be  found  on  page  62.  System- 
atic judging  is  promoted  by  first  considering  the  general 
appearance,  which  involves  the  animal  as  a  whole,  includ- 
ing height,  weight,  general  form,  quality,  character  and 
temperament.  After  this  the  different  parts,  in  proper 
order,  are  carefully  examined  and  rated.  The  detailed 
study  of  head,  next  the  neck,  then  the  breast,  and  so  on, 
with  their  relations  to  each  other,  requires  the  measure- 
incuts  of  the  smaller  details.  This  relationship  of  one  part 
to  another,  must  be  considered,  that  one  may  get  a  fair 
idea  of  the  strong  and  weak  points  in  the  conformation. 
The  relative  values  of  the  parts  of  the  scale  of  points 
are  somewhat  variable.  The  standard  of  excellence  for  a 
breed  has,  in  most  cases,  been  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of 
men  appointed  for  that  purpose,  by  a  breeders'  associa- 
tion, whose  work  has  been  endorsed  and  adopted  by  the 
members  of  the  same.  As  a  rule  the  scale  of  points  rep- 
resents the  work  of  well-known  breeders,  who  are  quite 
familiar  with  the  breed.  Thus,  through  the  scale,  one 
should  obtain  the  most  intelligent  and  comprehensive 
analysis  of  the  breed,  in  which  the  relative  values  of  the 
parts  are  set  forth.  The  score  card  in  this  case  will  show 
what  parts  are  most  highly  valued,  and  which  of  least 
importance.  If  we  are  using  a  score  card  for  mutton 
sheep,  as  applied  to  type  rather  than  breed,  su-ch  as 
is  in  common  use  in  the  classroom,  it  will  be  seen  that 
experts  have  endeavored  to  give  essentially  correct 


22  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

values  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body.  No  mat- 
ter what  kind  of  score  card  we  are  using,  in  general, 
appropriate  recognition  will  be  given  to  the  different 
parts,  crediting  each  with  a  fair  number  of  points.  The 
various  breeds  of  live  stock  of  similar  type  and  charac- 
ter place  quite  comparable  values  on  similar  more  im- 
portant parts.  This  may  be  illustrated  in  the  case  of 
the  dairy  breeds  of  cattle,  in  which  the  udder,  milk  veins 
and  wells  of  the  females  are  given  many  points,  thus 
indicating  their  great  importance.  If,  however,  meat  pro- 
duction is  the  primary  consideration,  then  with  either 
types  or  breeds  of  the  more  distinctive  meat  animals, 
greatest  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  development  of  back 
and  hindquarters,  where  the  largest  amount  of  valuable 
meat  is  obtained.  Further,  in  the  composition  of  the 
score  card,  the  minor  parts  from  the  commercial  point 
of  view,  such  as  ear,  nostril,  tail  or  ankle,  no  matter  how 
important  these  may  be  in  comprising  the  whole,  are 
measured  up  in  small  figures. 

The  use  of  figures  in  scoring  animals  is  necessary  to 
furnish  a  basis  for  comparison  with  the  ideal  or  standard. 
Care  should  be  used  to  grade  on  as  simple  and  clear  a  basis 
as  possible.  Figures  as  small  as  1  or  2  are  used  as  measures 
of  values  in  the  standard  but  it  is  undesirable  in  scoring 
an  animal  to  introduce  numbers  that  show  too  fine  a  measur- 
ment.  If  1  indicates  a  perfection  then  grades  of  .25  .50 
or  .75  might  be  used  as  measuring  the  value  of  the  part 
being  judged.  Surely  .25  of  one  per  cent  is  a  small  enough 
estimate  to  express  reasonably  well  a  valuation  of  a  part 
that  cannot  possibly  score  over  1  point.  Some  persons 
score  as  low  as  .1  of  one  per  cent,  but  that  is  a  very  fine 
measurement  to  apply  and  one  difficult  to  justify.  In  scor- 
ing, decimals  are  preferable,  as  common  fractions  do  not 
stand  out  in  clear  contrast  for  study,  and  the  person  scor- 
ing should  have  his  column  of  figures  mathematically  ar- 
ranged, with  the  decimal  points  in  line.  Unless  care  is 
used  in  this  respect,  the  judge  may  mix  his  columns  'in 


THE   SCORE   CARD   AND   ITS   USE  23 

adding,  which  will  result  in  an  error  in  the  total  score. 
After  having  scored  an  animal,  the  judge  should  always 
add  his  column  of  figures,  and  to  check  his  work  for  ac- 
curacy, should  add  the  column  both  up  and  down  to  see 
that  his  figures  agree. 

The  expression  " Points  Cut,"  in  scoring,  is  sometimes 
used.  The  official  instruction  to  judges,  working  under  the 
rules  of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  provides  for 
marking  down  cuts  when  scoring.  Some  of  the  associa- 
tions of  expert  judges  of  swine  also  use  the  cut  system. 
The  method  of  applying  the  cut  system  is  simple.  If  a 
part  in  the  standard  or  scale  of  points  is  credited  with 
10,  and  one  thinks  the  animal  worth  only  7  in  this  respect, 
then  3  is  recorded  as  so  many  points  taken  off,  or  cut.  This 
is  not  right.  The  points  cut  should  not  be  written  down. 
The  philosophy  of  recording  7  instead  of  3,  is  that  7  is  a 
basis  of  comparison  with  the  standard,  while  3  is  a  com- 
parison with  nothing.  It  may  be  easier  to  say  "I'll  cut 
three  points,"  but  the  real  purpose  of  the  score  card  is 
one  of  comparison,  and  no  comparison  is  implied  when  this 
form  is  used.  Therefore  it  is  highly  important  to  place 
one's  actual  valuation  for  each  part  in  proper  place  in  the 
column,  that  comparison  of  both  the  part  and  the  whole 
may  be  possible.  In  fact,  unless  we  place  figures  represent- 
ing value  to  the  credit  of  an  animal  we  do  not  give  a  proper 
score.  If  we  give  a  cut,  this  in  turn  must  be  taken  from 
the  perfect  score  in  order  to  give  correct  value. 

The  value  of  the  score  of  an  animal  is  relative  and 
should  not  be  regarded  too  highly.  Men  of  experience  in 
the  use  of  the  score  card,  very  generally  value  it  for  its 
importance  in  the  elementary  stages  of  judging  live  stock. 
Through  its  use,  the  young  judge  is  taught  the  location 
and  the  relative  values  of  the  different  parts  of  the  animal. 
The  great  criticism  of  the  score  card,  is  that  a  judge  may 
be  unable  to  grade  a  living  animal  exactly  the  same  at 
different  times.  His  figures  cannot  stand  as  final.  To-day 
we  may  score  an  animal  80  and  to-morrow  75.  The  horse 


24  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

we  scored  yesterday  may  to-morrow  come  before  us  in  better 
form,  with  more  action  and  expression,  and  therefore 
measure  up  to  a  higher  degree  of  excellence.  We  do  not 
know  how  to  express  in  satisfactory  figures  certain  things 
we  term  character,  expression,  quality,  etc.  For  many 
years  past  efforts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  score 
card  as  a  medium  for  judging  live  stock  at  the  shows,  but 
without  success.  In  no  case,  perhaps,  has  the  scale  of  points 
been  used  in  practical  judging  for  an  extended  period  of 
time.  Even  poultry  judges,  who  have  adhered  to  the  score 
card  more  than  any  one  else,  are  now  quite  generally  dis- 
carding its  use.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  state  here, 
that  some  men  who  have  been  judges  of  acknowledged 
ability,  when  required  to  officiate  by  score  card  methods, 
have  not  done  themselves  or  the  animals  they  have  passed 
on,  justice.  One  good  illustration  of  this  occurred  in  1893 
at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition.  A  great  show  of 
one  breed  was  judged  by  the  score  card.  Commenting  on 
the  work  of  the  judge,  who  in  his  time  was  regarded  as  well 
qualified  to  pass  on  this  breed,  the  following  came  from  the 
pen  of  a  noted  live  stock  critic,  and  is  well  worth  considera- 
tion in  its  relation  to  this  much  discussed  subject.1  "In 
this  connection  the  temptation  to  discuss  the  score  card  as 
a  show  yard  implement  is  strong.  If  it  had  been  known 
that  the  judge  intended  to  use  the  card,  it  is  questionable 
if  he  would  have  been  asked  to  do  the  work,  for  Chief  Bu- 
chanan has  little  use  for  this  well-nigh  obsolete  fad.  We 
say  well-nigh  obsolete.  So  far  as  Western  show  yards  are 
concerned,  it  has  not  made  its  appearance  in  the  cattle  ring 
for  the  past  ten  years.  It  is  occasionally  used  in  the  East, 
and  so  far  as  our  observation  extends,  it  is  the  most  potent 
cause  of  good  men  going  wrong  in  awarding  premiums. 
Swine  breeders  caught  the  score  card  fever  some  few  years 
ago.  They  have  recovered  thoroughly  from  the  attack.  It 
is  a  non-recurrent  disease.  Readers  of  the  Gazette  need 
not  have  repeated  to  them  the  arguments  which  have  driven 

1  Breeders'  Gazette,  Sept.  6,  1893,  p.  163. 


THE   SCORE   CARD   AXD    ITS    USE  25 

this  system  out  of  Western  show  yards.  They  need  not 
again  be  assured  of  the  folly  of  attempting  In  apply  mathe- 
matics to  the  judging  of  life.  They  know  that  the  tape  and 
square  can  measure  inert  matter;  they  equally  understand 
that  animal  form  cannot  be  reckoned  in  figures  as  cord 
wood  or  pig  iron." 

In  spite  of  the  above  criticism,  we  must  not  lose 
sight  of  the  value  of  the  scale  of  points  as  a  standard,  and 
what  it  may  teach.  A  limited  number  of  score  card  lessons, 
will  usually  suffice  to  introduce  the  subject  of  judging.  It 
is  also  important  that  the  judge  should  be  familiar  with 
the  scale  of  points  of  any  breed  which  he  may  be  called  to 
pass  upon  in  the  show  ring.  A  judge  would  hardly  be 
qualified  to  pass  on  a  breed  exhibit  if  he  lacked  knowledge 
of  the  standard  of  excellence  of  that  breed. 


PART  II— THE  HORSE. 

CHAPTER  III. 

MAN  AND  THE  HORSE. 

The  relationship  of  man  to  the  horse  has  long  been  very 
intimate.  The  horse,  since  time  immemorial,  has  occupied 
a  favorite  place  in  the  esteem  of  man.  For  centuries  he 
was  the  main  source  of  transportation,  both  in  peace  and 
war.  "With  the  development  of  agriculture  and  the  tilling 
of  the  soil,  the  horse  entered  into  a  new  field  of  usefulness. 
In  recent  days  the  advent  of  the  automobile  and  motor 
truck  seem  to  indicate  a  retirement  of  this  animal  to  a 
certain  extent  from  the  streets  of  our  towns  and  cities. 
Yet  in  spite  of  changed  conditions,  there  is  not  likely  to 
be  any  material  diminution  in  the  necessity  for  the  horse 
as  a  vital  factor  in  the  conduct  of  farm  operations.  His 
service  in  many  ways  is  indispensable.  Even  in  town  it 
will  be  impossible  for  many  to  make  use  of  other  form  of 
power  in  transporting  loads.  In  a  variety  of  ways  man 
will  continue  to  rely  upon,  the  horse,  both  for  pleasure  and 
profit.  If  this  animal  is  to  be  criticised  as  lacking  in 
efficiency,  is  it  not  highly  important  that  those  engaged 
in  the  production  and  selection  of  the  horse  understand 
his  structure,  purpose  and  adaptability?  Such  a  com- 
prehension must  be  based  on  a  knowledge  of  the  relation- 
ship of  internal  to  external  structure,  and  of  form  to  func- 
tion. A  knowledge  of  this  relationship  of  form  to  func- 
tion, coupled  with  reasonably  good  judgment,  will  materi- 
ally assist  one  in  measuring  the  personality  and  compara- 
tive value  of  the  horse  under  most  conditions  of  examina- 
tion. If  " knowledge  of  the  horse  is  an  art/'  to  quote 

26 


MAN  AND  THE  HORSE  27 

noted  French  authority,1  "it  is  especially  one  which  consists 
in  observing,  comparing  and  judging  according  to  positive 
information.  Besides,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  reach 
per  lection,  to  have  observed  much,  to  have  put  to  practice 
11  mi  faculty  which  makes  the  clinician,  the  connoisseur,  and 
the  artist.  It  is  when  such  an  education  is  carried  to  a 
considerable  extent  that  we  succeed  in  seizing  at  once  what 
good  or  defective  qualifications  the  horse  possesses,  and 
that  it  is  possible  to  form  a  just  conclusion  by  appreciat- 
ing to  what  degree  the  good  qualities  exceed  the  bad." 

1  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse.     Goubaux  &  Barriere,   1904,  p.  3. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  anatomy  of  the  horse  has  been  a  fertile  subject  of 
study  by  man,  and  a  large  amount  of  literature  has  been 
published  dealing  with  the  structural  characteristics  of 
this  animal.  In  as  much  as  it  has  been  clearly  demonstrated 
that  a  close  relationship  exists  between  the  internal  struc- 
ture and  external  conformation,  it  will  be  appropriate  in 
a  study  of  form  of  the  horse,  first  to  direct  attention  to  some 
of  those  features  of  anatomy  that  have  a  special  bearing 
on  his  use  and  efficiency.  The  bony  framework,  the  skele- 
ton, supports  and  protects  the  softer  body  tissues,  including 
the  muscles,  which  give  beauty  of  form  and  furnish  power. 
Not  only  these,  but  intimately  associated  with  them  is  a 
nervous  system  that  is  of  vital  importance,  which  indicates 
in  no  small  degree  the  power  to  comprehend  and  perform. 

The  skeleton  of  the  horse  consists  of  205  bones,  which 
may  be  grouped  in  three  classes.  These  are  long,  as  the 
thigh;  flat,  as  the  shoulder  blade;  and  short  or  irregular, 
as  in  the  foot  or  vertebrae  Bone  consists  of  cellular  tis- 
sue, -the  cells  of  which  have  become  more  or  less  filled  with 
calcareous  substance.  In  its  early  stage  of  development 
the  bone  lacks  mineral  matter,  consisting  of  fibrous  tissue, 
which  is  a  kind  of  cartilage.  With  growth  and  age,  this 
cartilage  becomes  filled  with  lime  and  changes  from  a  soft 
to  a  hard  condition.  The  quality  of  the  bone  is  largely 
influenced  by  the  presence  of  mineral  matter  in  it,  obtained 
from  food  and  water.  Bony  tissue  is  referred  to  as  hard 
and  compact  or  soft  and  spongy.  Horses  raised  on  dry 
uplands  are  said  to  have  harder,  better  feet  and  bone  than 
those  from  the  lowlands.  With  the  living  animal,  the  bones 

28 


THE   ANATOMY  OF   THE   HORSE 


29 


are  of  importance  for  the  following  purposes:  (a)  to  sup- 
port weight;  (&)  to  act  as  levers;  (c)  to  reduce  concussion. 
The  skull  of  the  horse  consists  of  eleven  bones,  and  is 
connected  with  the  spinal  column  at  the  atlas  joint.  The 
breadth  of  the  forehead  is  occupied  by  a  pair  of  frontal 
bones,  while  just  below,  and  extending  to  the  nose  are 
nasal  bones.  "Few  things,"  writes  Youatt,1  "more  clearly 


Fig.  8. — The  skeleton  of  the  horse.  "It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated 
that  a  close  relationship  exists  between  the  internal  structure  and  ex- 
ternal conformation."  (Courtesy  Dr.  S.  Sisson.  From  Anatomy  of  the 
Domestic  Animals.) 

indicate  the  breed  or  blood  of  the  horse  than  the  form  of 
the  frontal  bones.  Who  has  not  remarked  on  the  broad 
angular  forehead  of  the  blood  horse,  giving  him  a  beautiful 
expression  of  intelligence  and  fire,  the  face  gradually 
tapering  from  the  forehead  to  muzzle,  contrasting  it  with 

*  The  Horse,  1843,  p.  71. 


30 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


the  large  face  of  the  cart  or  dray  horse,  with  the  forehead 
scarcely  wider  than  the  face. ' '  Above  the  eye  on  each  side 
are  small  so-called  pits  or  depressions  between  the  frontal 
bones.  With  old  age  and  emaciation,  these  pits  sometimes 
appear  more  depressed.  The  frontal  bones  consist  of  two 
layers,  giving  considerable  thickness  to  the  skull.  Between 
these  are  cavities  known  as  frontal  sinuses,  connecting  with 
the  nasal  passages.  The  skull  is  characterized  by  great 
length  beyond  the  eye,  as  compared  with  the  portion  back 
of  it.  Prof.  H.  F.  Osborn  calls  attention 2  to  this  long- 


Fig.  9. — The  skull  of  tJie  Horse.  "The  skull  is  charac^jjzed  by  great 
length  beyond  the  eye."  Figs  1-6,  molar  teeth  ;  Figs.  11,  12,  13,  incisors ; 
G,  canines.  The  jaws  are  slightly  separated  for  sake  of  clearness.  The 
bone  covering  of  the  teeth  is  removed  to  show  root  extension.  (Courtesy 
Dr.  S.  Sisson.  From  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals.) 

headedness  as  a  very  ancient  character,  and  which  he  states 
is  for  two  purposes,  first,  to  facilitate  reaching  the  ground 
with  the  row  of  incisor  or  cropping  teeth,  and  second,  and 
no  less  important,  to  allow  space  in  front  of  the  eye  sockets 
for  the  great  row  of  elongate  grinding  teeth,  the  marvellous 
dental  battery  of  the  horse.  The  brain  cavity  is  very  small, 
considering  the  size  of  this  animal,  and  the  brain  has  an 

•The  Age  of  Mammals,   1910,   p.   18. 


THE   ANATOMY  OF   THE   HOUSE 


31 


average    weight    of    only 

twenty-three  ounces.     This 

is  an  interesting  contrast 

with  the  average  weight  of 

the  brain  of  a  white  man 

which  is  about  forty-nine 

ounces. 
The  age  of  the  horse  is 

usually  estimated  by  an  ex- 
amination of  the  teeth.     To 

inspect  these   most   easily, 

grasp  the  upper  jaw  with 

one  hand,  the  lower  with 

the  other,  the  thumbs  being 

inserted  just  back   of  the 

fnont   or  incisor  teeth. 

^Pressure    from    the    lower 

limid   causes  the   horse   to 

drop  the  under  jaw,  so  that 

the    teeth    may    be    quite 

easily    examined.      It    re- 
quires some  experience  in  recognizing  the  age,  which  -may 

be  determined  with  reasonable  accuracy  in  most  cases,  up 

to  eight  years.    After  that  there  is  some  uncertainty.     The 

appearance  of  the  teeth,  and  their  age  classification,  is  as 

follows : 

The  colt  teeth.— 
Seven  or  eight  days 
after  birth  two  incisor 
teeth  appear  at  tho 
front  and  middle  of 
both  upper  and  lower 
jaws.  In  the  course 
of  five  or  six  weeks, 
two  more  teeth  ap- 
pear in  each  jaw,  one 
tooth  coming  on  either 


Pig.  10. — Grasp  the  uppper  jaw 
with  one  hand  and  the  lower  with 
the  other. 


Fig.  11.— The  colt  teeth.  "They  are  the 
milk  teeth."  Figs.  11-18  reproduced  from 
"Beurtheilungslehre  des  Pferdes,"  1859. 


32 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  12. — Two  and  one-half  years  of  age. 


.side  of  the  two  al- 
ready present.  Some 
time  between  the 
sixth  and  ninth 
month,  two  more  ap- 
pear, one  by  the  side 
of  'each  onter  tooth, 
These  six  pairs  are 
called  nippers.  They 
are  the  milk  teeth. 

and  are  only  temporary.  They  are  not  all  equally  level  with 
one  another  at  first,  but  in  the  course  of  twelve  months  or  so 
they  become  uniform  on  the  surface.  The  outside  of  the 
tooth  is  very  hard,  white  enamel.  This  covers  a  hard, 
ivory-like  bone,  at  the  center  of  which  is  a  softer  sub- 
stance which  more  easily  wears  away,  but  is  constantly 
renewed.  The  ends  of  the  teeth  have  a  ridged  cutting 
surface,  forming  at  the  centers  small  depressions,  or 
' l  cups, ' '  by  which  the  age  is  determined.  The  cups  in  the 
central  pair  of  nippers  at  first  are  wide  and  somewhat  dark ; 
in  the  second  year,  with  use,  they  appear  lighter  in  color, 
and  become  smaller  than  those  of  the  other  four.  Similar 
changes  follow  in  order  in  the  other  pairs. 

At  two  and  one-half  to  three  years  of  age  permanent 
incisors  or  nippers  appear.    These  teeth  are  larger  than  the 

first  ones,  which 

were  small  but 
suited  to  the 
mouth  of  the 
colt.  The  first 
or  central  pair 
of  temporary 
teeth  is  pushed 
out  by  the  pair 
of  larger  per- 
manent ones. 

At  three  and 
one-half  to  four 


Fig.  13. — Three  and  one-half  years  of  age. 


THE   ANATOMY  OF   THE   HORSE 


33 


years  of  age,  the  second  pair  of  nippers  in  each  jaw  of  the 
colt  gives  way  to  two  larger,  permanent  teeth,  so  that  the 
four-year-old  shows  four  pairs  of  permanent  front  teeth. 

At  four  and  one-half  to  five  years  of  age  the  last  pair 
of  the  front  teeth  of  the  colt,  in  each  jaw,  is  supplanted  by 

a  pair  of  permanent 
ones.  At  this  age 
what  are  called  tusks 
appear  in  the  mouth 
of  the  male ;  they  also 
occur  occasionally  in 
the  mare.  These  tusks 
have  roundish  points, 
and  there  are  two  in 
each  jaw,  one  on  a 

%|?^  side,  a  short  distance 

back  of  the  front  teeth. 
After  the   fifth  year 
jr  the  age  of  the  horse  is 

determined  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  wear- 
ing surface  of  the 

teeth,    each   tooth   when   normal   having   its   age   surface. 
At  six  years  the  cups  of  the  two  central  teeth  are  worn  off. 
At  seven  years  the  second  pair  shows  the  worn  surface. 
At  eight  years  all  of  the  teeth  have  been  worn  about 
level,  and  the  mouth-mark  loses  its  value.     The  six  perma- 
nent teeth  in  each  jaw  at  first  meet  each  other  in  vertical 
position,  the  ends  butting  squarely  against  each  other.    As 
age  increases,  however,  the  teeth  gradually  take  a  more  in- 
clined or  slanting-out  position  in  each  jaw,  so  that  they 
come  together  at  a  sharper  angle.    The  older  teeth  are  also 
more  worn  on  the  ends,  and  are  longer  than  the  younger 
teeth.     In  a  horse  from  12  to  16  years  of  age  the  ends  of 
the  teeth  have  become  somewhat  three-sided. 

The  spinal  column  of  the  horse  consists  of  fifty-four 
bones,  or  vertebrae.  Seven  of  these,  the  cervical,  are  in 
the  neck;  eighteen,  the  thoracic,  are  in  the  back;  six,  the 


Fig.  14. — Four  years  of  age. 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  15. — Five  years  of  age. 


Fig.  16. — Six  years  of  age. 


THE   ANATOMY   OF   THE   HORSE 


35 


Fig.  17. — Seven  years  of  age. 


lumbar,  are  in  the 
loins ;  five  are  fused 
into  a  single  bone, 
the  sacrum,  located 
at  the  croup,  and 
about  eighteen 
comprise  the  coc- 
cyx or  tail  bones. 
The  spinal  cord 
passes  through  all 
these  bones,  except- 
ing beyond  the 
fourth  or  fifth  ver- 
tebraB  of  the  tail. 
The  thoracic  verte- 
brae have  long  projections  or  spines,  which  reach  the  highest 
point  at  the  top  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  vertebrae,  forming 
the  withers.  The  line  of  the  tops  of  the  spines,  gives  a 
curved  outline  to  the  backbone,  which  makes  it  impossible 
for  a  horse  to  have  a  flat  back,  there  being  a  necessary  de- 
pression from  the  withers  to  the  back  of  the  loin. 

The  ribs  of  the  horse  usually  number  eighteen  on  a 
side,  though  there  are  sometimes  nineteen.  Eight  of  these 
are  true  and  ten 
are  false.  By 
means  of  carti- 
lage at  the  lower 
end,  each  true  rib 
is  connected  with 
the  breast  bone. 
The  first  false  rib 
connects  by  carti- 
lage with  the  end 
of  the  last  true 
one,  and  each 
other  false  one  is 
attached  to  the  Fig.  is.— Eight  years  of  age. 


36  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

cartilage  of  the  one  before  it,  thus  forming  an  indirect 
connection  of  false  with  true  ribs.  The  ribs  not  only  pro- 
tect the  vital  organs  from  injury,  but  are  agents  in  ex- 
panding and  contracting  the  chest. 

The  sternum  or  breast  bone  of  the  horse  suggests  a 
canoe  in  shape,  and  is  located  between  the  ends  of  the  carti- 
lages of  the  true  ribs.  The  sternum  furnishes  important 
attachment  for  muscles. 

The  shoulder  blade  of  the  horse  is  a  long,  broad,  thin 
bone,  flat  on  the  inner  side,  but  with  a  ridge  on  the  outside 
that  divides  the  muscles  that  act  at  the  shoulder.  The 
point  of  the  shoulder  is  opposite  the  lower  ends  of  the  first 
and  second  ribs,  and  the  blade  extends  back  obliquely 
upward  to  the  seventh  rib. 

The  humerus  is  a  large,  heavy  bone,  that  at  its  upper 
part  fits  into  a  socket  at  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  extend- 
ing obliquely  backward  about  on  a  line  with  the  depth  of 
the  belly.  One  long  bone,  the  radius,  joins  the  lower  end 
of  the  humerus  to  form  the  "front"  knee  joint.  A  smaller 
bone,  the  ulna,  lies  just  back  of  the  radius,  projecting 
decidedly  above  it  to  form  the  point  of  the  elbow.  At  the 
lower  end  of  the  radius,  at  the  knee,  are  two  rows  of  small 
hard  bones,  back  of  which  is  another  small  bone,  over  which 
passes  the  tendons  of  the  fore  leg.  Below  the  knee  is  the 
large  metacarpal  or  cannon  bone,  about  nine  or  ten  inches 
long,  one  of  the  strongest  bones  in  the  skeleton.  Back  of 
this  on  each  side  are  two  small  bones,  known  as  splint  bones ; 
between  is  a  groove,  through  which  passes  a  ligament.  At 
its  lower  end  the  cannon  bone  joins  with  the  two  sessa- 
moids  and  the  fetlock  bone  (long  pastern),  forming  the 
fetlock  joint.  The  pastern  extends  obliquely  forward  and 
downward,  forming  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  Below 
the  fetlock  bone  is  the  pastern  bone,  and  below  this  the 
coffin  bone.  Behind  the  latter  is  a  small,  rather  thin  bone, 
the  navicular.  The  sessamoid  and  navicular  bones  act  as 
pulleys  for  a  tendon  which  passes  over  this  part. 

The  Hoof,  which  encloses  the  foot  bones,  is  an  appendage 


THE   ANATOMY  OF   THE   HORSE 


37 


of  the  skin,  comparable  with  the  finger-nail.  This  consists 
of  three  parts,  (1)  the  wall,  or  all  of  the  exterior  of  the 
hoof  to  be  seen  when  resting  on  the  floor  surface;  (2)  the 
sole,  which  arches  over  much  of  the  under  side  of  the  hoof, 
excepting  the  space  occupied  by  (3)  the  frog,  which  is  a 
wedge-shaped  form  of  soft  horn,  extending  from  the  cleft 
at  the  back  side  of  the 
hoof,  to  a  point  well 
beyond  the  center  of 
the  sole.  This  back 
side  of  the  hoof  is 
known  as  the  heel,  to 
which  the  frog  is  con- 
nected at  its  basal  ex- 
tremities. On  each 
side  of  the  frog,  be- 
tween this  and  the 
sole,  is  a  slight  ridge, 
the  bar,  which  is  a 
continuation  of  the 
hoof  wall.  The  coro- 
net is  the  top  of  the 
hoof  where  this  part 
joins  the  pastern. 

The  pelvis  of  the 
horse  occupies  a  slop- 
ing backward  position 
in  the  upper  part  of 
the  hindquarters,  ar- 
ticulating with  the 

sacrum.  It  appears  as  one  bone,  although  really  con- 
sisting of  two  similar  halves.  The.  outer  projecting  part 
of  the  pelvis  on  each  side  is  known  as  the  point  of  the 
hip,  while  the  extreme  rear  end,  the  ischium,  is  commonly 
termed  the  point  of  the  'buttock.  A  very  large,  heavy  thigh 
bone,  the  femur,  has  its  upper  end  in  a  socket  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  pelvis.  This  thigh  bone  extends  forward,  end- 


Fig.  19. — The  digit  of  the  horse,  show- 
ing surface  relationship  of  bones  and 
joints  :  a,  long  pastern  bone  ;  6,  short  pas- 
tern ;  c,  coffin  bone  ;  d,  cartilage ;  e,  na- 
vicular  bone ;  h,  cut-edge  wall  of  hoof. 
(Courtesy  Dr.  S.  Sisson.  From  Anatomy 
of  the  Domestic  Animals.) 


38 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


ing  in  the  prominent  knee  or  stifle  joint.  On  the  front  of 
this"  joint  is  the  knee  cap  or  patella,  on  which  are  fastened 
muscles  that  operate  the  joint.  At  its  lower  end  the  thigh 
proper  joins  the  lower  thigh  or  tibia,  back  of  which  is  a 
small  bone,  the  fibula.  The  tibia  extends  obliquely  back 

and  downward,  connecting 
by  a  groove-like  arrange- 
ment with  a  small,  odd 
shaped  bone,  the  astragalus. 
Back  of  this  is  a  bone,  the 
os  calcis,  which  projects  up- 
ward and  backward,  the 
upper  part  of  which  forms 
the  point  of  the  hock.  Be- 
low the  hock  are  three 
small,  flattish,  irregular 
shaped  bones,  two  in  front 
and  one  behind.  The  bones 
of  the  hind  leg,  below  the 
hock,  are  much  like  those 
below  the  knee  in  the  front 
leg. 

Resemblances  between 
the  bones  of  man  and  the 
horse  are  set  forth  in  an  interesting  manner  by  Captain  M. 
H.  Hayes.3  "The  horse  possesses  no  collar  bone,  conse- 
quently there  is  no  bony  connection  between  his  fore  extrem- 
ity and  trunk.  The  humerus,  elbow,  and  forearm  are  the 
same  in  both,  except  that  the  ulna  is  complete  in  the  horse 
only  in  very  rare  instances.  The  knee  of  the  horse  corre- 
sponds to  the  wrist  of  man.  The  five  bones  between  our  wrist 
and  the  first  row  of  knuckles  are  represented  in  the  horse  by 
the  cannon  and  splint  bones.  His  fetlock  is  analogous  to 
the  first  row  of  knuckles  of  our  hand.  The  long  pastern 
bone  corresponds  to  the  first  bone  of  our  middle  finger; 
the  short  one,  to  the  second  bone ;  the  pedal  one  to  their 

3  The  Points  of  the  Horse,  London,  3d  ed.,  1904,  p.  38. 


Fig.  20. — Right  forehoof,  ground 
surface.  1,  2,  the  wall ;  3,  angle'  of 
wall ;  4,  bar  ;  5,  sole  ;  G,  junction  wall 
and  sole ;  7,  apex  frog ;  8,  central 
sulcus  of  frog ;  9,  9,  sulci  between 
frog  and  bars  ;  10,  10,  bulbs  of  hoofs. 
(Courtesy  Dr.  S.  Sisson.  From  Anat- 
omy of  the  Domestic  Animals.) 


Fig.  21. — Resemblances  between  the  bones  of  man  and  the  horse.  From 
photograph  of  skeletons  prepared  by  Mr.  S.  H.  Chubb.  (Courtesy 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History.) 


40  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

third  bone,  and  the  hoof  to  its  nail.  The  navicular  bone 
has  no  counterpart  in  our  frame.  In  the  hind  limb,  the 
stifle  represents  our  knee;  the  tibia,  the  shin;  the  hock, 
the  ankle;  the  point  of  the  hock,  the  heel;  and  so  on.  In 
man,  the  fibula  is  a  fully  developed  bone.  We  may  thus 
see  that  the  horse  is  an  animal  that  moves  on  the  tips  of 
his  fingers  and  toes ;  and  that  he  has  only  one  complete  and 
functional  toe  to  each  leg." 

The  relationship  of  speed  in  the  horse  to  the  structure 
of  the  skeleton  is  an  important  one.  The  prehistoric  horse 
possessed  five  toes  instead  of  one  on  each  foot.  During 
the  process  of  evolution,  the  excess  side  toes  disappeared, 
leaving  only  the  central  one  and  two  more  or  less  developed 
splints;  the  cannon  bone  also  increased  in  length.  Ac- 
cording to  Lydekker 4  this  development  to  a  one-toe  basis, 
with  the  accompanying  splints,  the  elongation  of  the  bones 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  limb,  the  simplification  and  the 
consolidation  of  the  middle  part,  and  the  raising  of  the 
knee  and  hock  far  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  so  as  to 
cause  the  animal  to  walk  on  the  tips  of  its  single  toes,  are 
the  important  features  wherein  the  horse,  as  compared 
with  other  animals,  is  adapted  to  high  speed.  At  the 
present  day  the  horse  is  the  only  animal  having  a  single 
toed  or  monodactyle  foot.  A  many  toed,  short  boned  limb, 
would  be  unequal  to  the  strain  of  carrying  the  body  of  such 
a  heavy  animal  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  over  hard  ground. 

The  muscles  of  the  body  consist  of  groups  of  fleshy  fiber, 
that  under  the  influence  of  the  nerves,  have  the  power  to 
contract.  Most  of  the  muscles  are  attached  to  bone  by 
means  of  tough,  hard,  whitish  cords,  known  as  tendons. 
Through  direction  from  the  brain,  the  nervous  system 
stimulates  the  muscle  which  at  once  contracts  and  thus 
produces  power.  Muscles  differ  in  length  and  strength, 
short,  thick  ones  being  capable  of  producing  greater  strength 
than  long,  slender  ones.  The  tendons  also  differ  in  length 
and  degree  of  attachment  to  the  bone.  A  muscle  can  con- 

4  The  Horse  and  its  Relatives,   London,   1912.  p.   17. 


THE   ANATOMY   OF   THE   HORSE  41 


Fig.  22. — Superficial  muscles  of  the  horse.  "Muscles  differ  in  length  and 
strength."  (Courtesy  Dr.  S.  Sisson.  Reproduced  from  Anatomy  of  the 
Domestic  Animals.) 

tract  to  about  two  thirds  its  ordinary  length,  if  conditions 
favor  the  same.  The  power  of  a  muscle  is  in  accordance 
with  its  thickness,  while  its  action  is  dependent  on  its 
length.  Comparatively  the  draft  horse  with  a  thick,  short 
muscle,  moves  slowly  and  in  short  powerful  strides,  while 
the  race  horse,  with  long  muscles  possesses  a  longer  stride 
and  covers  ground  more  rapidly.  Muscles  of  the  same  size 
on  different  animals  vary  in  strength,  this  being  due  to 
heredity,  food,  condition,  nervous  power,  etc.  "  Massive 
muscles, ' '  says  Hayes, 5  '  *  compared  to  slight  ones,  have  two 
disadvantages,  namely, — they  increase  the  weight  which 
is  carried,  both  in  muscle  and  bone ;  and  they  necessitate 
the  possession  of  large  joints,  which  from  increased  friction, 
are  not  so  easily  bent  and  extended  as  smaller  ones ;  besides, 
it  has  been  proved  that  they  do  not  respond  as  quickly  to 
nervous  stimulus."  Hayes  makes  the  further  interesting 
observation  that  we  may  often  note  that  race  horses  which 
were  very  smart  as  two-year  olds,  lose  their  "form"  after 
that  age  without  any  assignable  reason,  excepting  that  as 

6  Points  of  the  Horse.     M.  H.  Hayes,  London,  3d  ed.,   1904,  p.  29. 


42  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

they  thickened  they  got  slow.  Muscles  vary  greatly  in  their 
activity  in  the  body,  and  naturally  each  plays  its  special 
part.  To  illustrate,  the  muscle  attached  to  the  back  of  a 
leg  joint,  being  constantly  used  to  flex  or  close  the  joint, 
is  active  and  tough,  while  the  short,  thick  muscles  in  the 
loins,  are  relatively  but  little  used,  and  consequently  lack 
in  toughness.  Among  the  many  muscles  of  the  horse  the 
following  are  of  special  interest.  The  head  is  bent  by  the 
muscles  that  extend  from  the  lower  jaw  to  the  breast  bone. 
Another  muscle  from  the  poll  to  the  withers  regulates  the 
extension  of  the  head.  One  heavy  muscle,  the  complexus, 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  gives  much  of  the  shape  to 
this  part.  The  most  powerful  muscle  in  the  body  extends 
from  the  neck  along  the  back  to  the  sacrum  and  beyond, 
and  is  closely  attached  to  the  backbone,  pelvis  and  upper 
part  of  the  ribs,  forming  in  fact  most  of  the  fleshy  outline 
of  the  back  and  loins.  The  shoulder  blade  is  connected 
with  the  body  by  a  strong,  fan-shaped  muscle  on  its  under 
side,  attached  in  front  at  the  neck  and  behind  at  the  ribs. 
The  blade  moves  forward  or  backward,  according  to  con- 
traction of  the  muscle.  Another  muscle  on  the  outside  of 
the  blade  extends  to  the  withers,  head  and  neck,  and  assists 
in  moving  the  shoulder.  One  long  muscle,  extending  from 
the  poll  and  neck  to  the  humerus,  moves  the  foreleg  for- 
ward. The  freest  action  of  shoulder  and  forelimb  is  as- 
sociated with  a  long  neck  and  prominent  withers.  A  num- 
ber of  important  muscles-  and  tendons  assisting  in  regulat- 
ing movements  of  the  fore  limb,  are  attached  at  the  lower 
part  of  shoulder  and  the  leg  below.  In  the  quarters  we 
find  powerful  muscles  for  producing  either  force  or  speed. 
One  of  the  most  important,  the  large  croup  muscle,  extends 
from  the  front  of  the  pelvis  around  over  the  croup  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  thigh  bone.  The  large  muscles  on  the 
back  of  the  thigh,  lead  from  the  under  side  of  the  pelvis 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  tibia.  The  gaskin,  the  smaller 
part  of  the  thigh  above  the  hock,  has  two  important  muscles 
on  its  rear  side.  These  start  from  the  lower  end  of  the 


THE  ANATOMY  OF   THE   HORSE  43 

upper  thigh,  one  ending  in  a  tendon  at  the.  point  of  the 
hock,  the  other  extending  from  the  hock  as  a  tendon  along 
down  the  back  of  the  leg  to  the  fetlock  bone.  There  are 
many  different  muscles  over  the  body  that  are  intimately 
related  to  the  locomotion  of  the  horse,  the  material  injury 
of  any  one  of  which  would  seriously  affect  the  efficiency 
of  various  others. 

The  digestive  system  of  the  horse  consists  of  the  mouth, 
tongue,  teeth,  pharynx,  oesophagus  or  gullet,  stomach,  large 
and  small  intestines,  pancreas,  liver  and  spleen.  The  food 
is  taken  into  the  mouth  and  with  the  aid  of  the  tongue  and 
teeth,  is  broken  and  mixed  with  saliva,  a  digestive  fluid. 
The  food  is  swallowed,  and  passes  across  the  pharynx,  a 
small  sac,  about  six  inches  long,  and  enters  the  oesophagus, 
a  tube  50  to  60  inches  long,  through  which  it  moves  into 
the  stomach.  In  this  latter  organ  the  food  is  churned  and 
mixed  with  water  and  digestive  agents,  especially  gastric 
juice  and  hydrochloric  acid,  this  latter  being  especially 
found  in  the  stomach.  From  the  stomach  the  food  moves 
into  the  small  intestine,  to  be  further  acted  on  by  digestive 
agents,  notably  pancreatic  juice  secreted  by  the  pancreas, 
and  bile  from  the  liver.  The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  com- 
paratively small,  its  capacity  ranging  from  two  to  four 
gallons.  According  to  Sisson  6  the  size,  form  and  position 
of  the  stomach  are  subject  to  considerable  variation.  The 
small  size  of  the  stomach  explains  the  necessity  of  giving 
light  rations  during  working  hours,  with  the  heavier  feed- 
ing just  before  the  greatest  period  of  rest,  such  as  at  night. 
The  small  intestine  is  about  70  feet  long,  and  has  a  capacity 
of  about  twelve  gallons.  Here  the  most  active  and  efficient 
work  of  digestion  and  assimilation  takes  place.  The  large 
intestine  is  about  25  feet  long,  and  extends  from  the  small 
intestine  to  the  anus,  from  which  point  the  solid  excrement 
is  passed  from  the  body.  The  intestines  occupy  the  rear 
part  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  underneath  and  back  of  the 
ribs.  The  liver  of  the  horse  covers  much  of  the  right  side 

6  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals.     S.  Sisson,  Philadelphia,   1914,  p.  417. 


44  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

of  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  is  the  largest  gland  of  the 
body,  weighing  ten  to  twelve  pounds,  and  extending  from 
within  three  or  four  inches  of  the  floor  of  the  abdominal 
cavity,  just  above  the  elbow,  to  a  level  with  the  right  kidney, 
just  below  the  loin. 

The  heart  of  the  horse,  located  down  in  the  left  side 
of  the  chest,  is  a  hollow  muscle  that  under  average  condi- 
tions weighs  about  nine  pounds,  but  may  vary  greatly  in 
size.  Dr.  Sisson  states  7  that,  ' '  as  might  be  expected,  race 
horses  have  hearts  which  are  larger  than  the  average,  both 


Fig.  23. — Viscera  of  mare  :  L,  liver  ;  Ma,  stomach,  the  posterior  contour 
being  indicated  by  dotted  line  x  ;  Mi  spleen  ;  IN,  left  kidney  ;  D,  small  in- 
testine, partly  removed  ;  IdC  and  IvC,  large  intestine ;  H,  bladder  ;  aa,  bb', 
heart ;  M',  rectum  ;  V,  vagina.  (Courtesy  Dr.  S.  Sisson.  From  Anatomy 
of  the  Domestic  Animals.) 

absolutely  and  relatively."  Small  horses  show  more  ac- 
tivity of  heart  action  than  large  ones,  with  more  rapid 
pulsation. 

The  lungs  of  the  horse  occupy  much  of  the  upper  chest 
cavity,  and  average  about  seven  and  one-half  pounds  in 
weight.  The  right  lung  weighs  about  half  as  much  as  the 
left  one.  The  size  and  capacity  of  the  lungs  are  important. 
Of  two  horses  of  equal  size,  the  one  having  the  larger  lungs 

7  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals,  1914,  p.  620. 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE   HORSE  45 

will  absorb  the  most  oxygen  into  the  body  and  cast  off  the 
most  impurities  into  the  atmosphere.  Thus  the  combina- 
tion of  strong  heart  and  capacious  lungs  is  most  important. 

The  nervous  system  of  the  horse  is  centered  in  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  from  which  it  radiates  throughout  the 
entire  body.  The  spinal  cord  is  from  76  to  78  inches  long 
and  weighs  eight  and  one-half  to  nine  ounces,  and  is  nearly 
cylindrical.  The  brain  weighs  about  23  ounces,  and  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  the  medula  oblongata,  the  cere- 
brum and  cerebellum.  The  cerebrum  is  located  just  below 
the  forehead  and  is  the  organ  of  thought  or  intelligence. 
The  cerebellum  is  a  very  small  part  of  the  brain,  directly 
back  of  the  cerebrum,  and  as  expressed  by  Hayes,  "is  the 
organ  of  muscular  sense. ' '  The  medulla  oblongata  is  simply 
the  connecting  link  between  the  brain  proper  and  the  spinal 
cord.  The  entire  nervous  system  is  made  up  of  certain 
tissues  that  have  the  property  of  extreme  irritability  or 
sensitiveness,  especially  as  applied  to  external  conditions. 
It  is  the  property  of  this  system  to  act  between  these  ex- 
ternal influences  and  the  inner  ones  of  the  body  tissues. 
Thus  the  nerves  convey  to  the  muscles  and  other  organs 
motor  influences  whereby  movement  of  the  animal  body 
takes  place  through  contraction  of  the  muscular  tissues. 
The  amount  of  contraction  which  may  take  place  will  be 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  stimulation  of  the  nerves. 
"With  some  animals  the  nervous  system  is  more  sensitive 
than  with  others,  even  though  apparently  much  alike 
otherwise.  Light  horses,  such  as  Thoroughbreds,  are  very 
generally  regarded  as  more  nervous  than  the  heavy  draft, 
and  respond  more  actively  to  muscular  stimulation. 

The  temperament  of  the  horse  relates  to  his  nervous 
and  mental  character,  and  may  be  regarded  as  of  much 
importance,  bearing  on  his  usefulness  to  man.  When  natu- 
rally active  and  quick  to  move  and  think,  the  horse  is  said 
to  have  a  nervous  temperament.  The  light  weight  horse 
of  the  racing  class  possesses  this  temperament.  "When 
characteristically  slow  to  move  or  act,  the  horse  is  said  to 


46  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

have  a  phlegmatic  or  lymphatic  temperament.  The  large 
horses  of  draft  class  are  usually  regarded  of  this  tempera- 
ment. Horses  vary  much  in  temperament,  but  in  their 
relationship  to  man,  naturally  incline  to  service.  If  willing 
to  adjust  himself  to  the  work  at  hand,  injecting  sufficient 
animation  to  produce  the  best  of  results,  his  temperament 


Fig.  24. — "The  temperament  is  mainly  indicated  by  the  expression  of  the 
eye,  the  carriage  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  the  disposition  to  act." 

will  be  of  the  right  kind.  A  nervous  temperament,  quick 
to  act,  yet  well  balanced,  and  associated  with  reasonable 
intelligence,  best  meets  the  requirements  of  the  horseman. 
A  phlegmatic  temperament,  slow  to  move,  uncertain  as  to 
action,  coupled  with  a  dull  mind,  would  find  no  advocate 
among  horse  lovers.  The  temperament  is  mainly  indicated 
by  the  expression  of  the  eye,  the  carriage  of  the  head  and 
neck,  and  the  disposition  to  act,  as  seen  under  the  direc- 
tion of  either  voice  or  hand.  A  lively  yet  pleasant  eye,  a 
tendency  to  carry  the  ear  erect  or  pointing  forward,  and 


THE   ANATOMY  OF   THE   HORSE  47 

a  willingness  to  move  steadily,  and  without  fear  or  nervous 
ness  when  spoken  to,  are   all   features  of  good  tempera- 
ment. 

The  disposition  of  the  horse  more  specifically  refers  to 
his  spirit  of  mind,  whether  good  or  bad,  etc.  A  kicker  or 
biter,  or  a  balky  horse,  would  be  considered  as  having  a 
bad  disposition,  a  quality  as  likely  to  occur  with  one  tem- 
perament as  another.  The  disposition,  as  expressed  in 
obedience,  is  of  great  importance,  for  the  usefulness  of  the 
horse  may  quite  depend  on  this  quality  of  character. 
" Among  the  good  mental  qualities  of  the  horse/7  says 
Count  Cesaresco, 8  ' '  the  most  important  is  a  good  disposi- 
tion, as  by  means  of  this  the  horse  gives  in  to  us  immediate- 
ly, resigns  himself  to  obedience  forthwith,  ,and  is  controlled 
by  the  aid  of  this  feeling  of  obedience.  The  body  or 
mechanism  of  the  horse  renders  us  service  if  the  horse's 
mind  directs  it  to  do  so.  It  is  impossible  to  obtain  service 
from  the  body  if  the  mind  is  unwilling  to  command  it.  A 
good  will  or  a  good  disposition  is  the  first  quality  required 
to  obtain  useful  service  from  the  horse,  as  in  order  to 
render  this  service,  he  must  be  allowed  freedom ;  he  cannot 
do  it  like  a  galley  slave,  with  the  hands,  whilst  his  feet  are 
fettered/' 

8  The  Psychology  and  Training  of  the  Horse,  1906,  p.  64. 


CHAPTER  V. 
THE   HORSE   IN   MOTION. 

The  horse  is  used  by  man  for  various  purposes  that 
require  movement  as  the  prime  factor.  This  ranges  from 
the  slow  and  powerful  walk  of  the  draft  horse  to  the  swift 
gallop  of  the  light  runner.  In  a  horse  standing  at  perfect 
rest,  we  observe  a  large,  heavy  body  or  trunk,  suspended 
by  the  spine  between  four  upright  supports,  the  legs.  When 
the  body  of  the  horse  is  at  rest,  it  is  in  balance  or  equi- 
librium from  a  certain  imaginary  point  within  the  body 
where  is  located  the  center  of  gravity.  The  position  of 
center  of  gravity,  according  to  Colin,  a  French  authority, l 
is  at  a  point  in  the  body  which  corresponds  to  the  intersec- 
tion of  two  lines,  one  vertical  and  one  horizontal,  that  meet 
slightly  below  the  center  of  the  chest  cavity,  on  a  line  with 
the  back  edge  of  the  eighth  rib.  "It  is  clear,"  says  Colin, 
"that  the  position  of  the  center  of  gravity  and  the  distri- 
bution of  the  body  upon  the  members  (legs),  must  vary 
according  to  the  conformation  of  animals,  whose  head,  neck, 
abdomen,  and  croup,  present  such  diverse  proportion.'7 
When  the  horse  is  in  motion,  and  extends  his  head  and 
neck,  he  shifts  his  center  of  gravity  forward.  The  im- 
portant point  in  this  connection  is,  that  equilibrium  be 
maintained  while  in  motion.  This  will  be  secured  in  the 
greatest  degree  by  a  gravitation  that  does  not  reach  the 
ground,  yet  which,  through  shortness  of  leg,  provides  a 
strong  support  and  easy  recovery  of  equilibrium.  Locomo- 
tion is  only  secured  by  the  moving  forward  of  the  leg,  thus 
shifting  what  is  known  as  the  base  of  support  below  the 
center  of  gravity. 

1  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse.     Goubaux  &  Barriere,  2d  Am.  ed.,  1904,  p.  5. 

48 


THE   HORSE   IN   MOTION  49 

The  joints  of  the  horse  naturally  are  main  factors  in 
locomotion.  These  may  be  grouped  in  two  classes,  mov- 
able and  immovable.  The  two  ends  of  the  bone  are  held  to- 
gether by  strong,  hard,  fibrous  tissues,  known  as  ligaments. 
There  are  several  kinds  of  ligaments,  some  being  white  and 
inelastic  and  others  yellow  and  elastic.  The  normal  pur- 
pose of  the  inelastic  ligament  is  to  keep  the  end  of  the  bone 
within  its  socket.  Some  joints  have  considerable  play,  while 
others  are  quite  immovable.  The  ordinary  ball  and  socket 
joint,  as  seen  in  the  shoulder  or  hip,  is  a  striking  example 
of  the  movable  joint.  The  more  shallow  the  socket,  the 
more  extensive  the  possible  movement  of  the  limb.  Hinge 
joints  which  possess  motion  in  but  two  directions,  forward 
and  backward,  occur  at  various  points,  especially  in 
the  elbow  and  hock.  The  knee  has  three  hinge  joints,  one 
of  which,  between  the  arm  and  cannon,  allows  much  motion. 
When  the  knee  is  bent,  or  the  leg  folds  on  itself,  we  say  it  is 
flexed,  and  when  straightened  out,  it  is  extended. 

The  movements  of  the  limbs  and  joints  are  made  possi- 
ble through  the  actions  of  levers,  which  are  formed  by  the 
bones  and  acted  upon  by  the  muscles,  when  stimulated  by 
the  nerves.  A  lever  is  a  rigid  bar,  either  straight  or  curved, 
which  turns  upon  a  fixed  point,  the  fulcrum.  At  some  point 
on  the  lever  is  a  weight,  which  may  be  moved  by  the  appli- 
cation of  power  at  some  other  point.  There  are  three 
classes  of  levers. 

The  lever  of  the  first  class  is  seen  in  using  a  long  bar 
as  a  pry.  One  end  is  placed  under  the  object  to  be  moved, 
which  is  the  weight,  while  the  bar  rests  a  short  distance 
from  the  weight  on  a  point,  the  fulcrum.  If  power  is  ap- 
plied at  the  long  end  of  the  lever,  by  bearing  down,  the 
point  beyond  the  fulcrum  comes  up  with  its  weight.  In 
the  case  of  the  horse,  a  lever  of  the  first  class  is  seen  in  the 
extension  of  the  limbs,  as  for  example  when  kicking  back 
with  the  hind  foot.  In  this  case  the  muscle  pulls  back 
over  the  point  of  the  hock,  furnishing  the  power;  the  ful- 


50  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

crum  is  the  joint,  and  the  weight  is  the  foot  which  is  being 
lifted. 

The  lever  of  the  second  class  is  commonly  illustrated 
by  the  wheelbarrow.  The  fulcrum  is  where  the  wheel  rests 
on  the  ground,  the  barrow  is  the  weight,  and  the  arms  of 
the  person  lifting  the  handles  provide  the  power.  An 
example  of  the  lever  of  the  second  class  in  the  horse,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  hind  leg,  in  moving  the  body  forward. 
Here  the  power  is  conveyed  through  the  short  leg  bone, 
the  tibia ;  the  fulcrum  is  the  point  of  the  foot  at  the  ground, 
and  the  weight  is  at  the  hock  joint. 

The  lever  of  the  third  class  is  seen  in  the  man  fishing 
with  a  rod.  The  fulcrum  is  the  end  of  the  handle  next  the 
body,  the  power  is  where  the  hand  holds  the  rod  and  the 
weight  is  in  the  fish  at  the  end  of  the  line.  The  lower  jaw 
of  the  horse  illustrates  this  leverage.  The  fulcrum  is  at 
the  point  where  the  lower  jaw  is  attached  to  the  upper,  the 
power  is  at  the  center  of  the  jaw  bone,  and  the  weight  at 
the  front  teeth.  Referring  to  the  relations  between  the 
power  and  weight  in  levers,  Hayes  says : 2  "  The  farther 
the  power  is  from  the  fulcrum,  the  greater  will  be  the 
mechanical  advantage  at  which  it  will  act ;  and  vice  versa. 
Thus,  if  one  arm  of  a  see-saw  is  longer  than  the  other,  a 
comparatively  light  weight  at  the  end  of  the  former  will 
counterbalance  a  heavy  one  at  the  extremity  of  the  latter. 
Also,  the  longer  an  oar  is  inboard,  as  in  an  outrigger,  the 
greater  will  be  the  power  which  a  rower  will  have.  If  we 
apply  this  principle  to  the  horse,  we  shall  see  that  the  longer 
is  the  os  calcis,  the  greater  will  be  the  mechanical  ad- 
vantage at  which  the  muscles  of  the  gaskin  will  act  in  kick- 
ing or  propelling  the  body  forward. "  Hayes  further  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  nearer  a  force  is  at  right 
angles  with  its  lever,  the  greater  will  be  the  mechanical 
advantage.  Making  a  concrete  application  of  this  he  says : 
"Acting  on  the  principle  just  enunciated,  the  cart  horse, 
with  the  view  of  obtaining  the  utmost  mechanical  ad- 

3  The  Points  of  the  Horso.     M.  H.  Hayes,  London,  3d  Am.  ed.,   1904,  p.  57. 


THE    HORSE    TN   MOTION 


51 


vantage,  when  trying  to  draw  a  heavy  load,  will  naturally 
endeavor  to  move  the  levers  of  his  limbs  (when  straighten- 
ing them  out)  with  the  power  as  nearly  as  possible  at  right 
angles  to  each  respective  lever.  Hence  he  will  obtain  his 
results  by  only  slight  bending  of  the  joints,  and  conse- 
quently his  steps  will  be  short.  "We  may  see  this  action  of 
levers  of  the  hind  limbs  well  shown  by  the  manner  in  which 
he  will  crouch  down  behind  when  he  makes  a  strong  effort 
with  his  hind  legs,  while  exerting  the  forelegs  but  little, 
as  may  occur  when  the  roadway  is  slippery.  The  galloper, 
on  the  contrary,  will  require  the  power  of  straightening 
out  his  limbs  to  their  utmost  extent,  and  will  thus  obtain 
speed  at  a  lavish  expenditure  of  muscular  effort.  This  is 
especially  well  shown  in  the  action  of  the  fetlock  joint; 
for  if  the  pastern  be  long  and  sloping,  the  mechanical  dis- 
advantage will  be  great,  but  the  gain  in  speed  will  be 
equally  large.  If  the  pastern  be  upright,  the  fetlock  will 
work  advantageously  as  far  as  the  weight  to  be  moved  is 
concerned,  but  it  will  contribute  little  to  the  attainment  of 
speed."  The  locomotion  of  the  horse  passes  through  vari- 
ous degrees  of  speed  from  a  walk  to  a  gallop.  Every 
healthy  horse  must  possess  at  least  two  classes  of  speed, 
as  for  example,  a  walk  and  trot.  The  horse,  however,  has 
the  power  of  locomotion  in  a  variety  of  forms  that  inti- 
mately relate  to  service  and  value.  The  following  defini- 
tions and  discussions  relate  to  the  horse  in  motion,  and 
should  be  understood  by  one  who  expects  to  qualify  as  a 
judge  of  this  animal. 

The  stride  is  the  distance  traversed  from  where  the  foot 
leaves  the  ground  until  it  again  rests  upon  it.  It  is  the 
action  of  the  individual  leg,  and  therefore  we  may  also 
refer  to  the  stride  as  the  distance  passed  over  by  the  limb 
from  the  beginning  of  flexing  when  the  foot  is  raised  from 
the  ground,  to  the  greatest  extension  following  this  move- 
ment. In  the  stride,  when  the  foot  hits  the  ground,  noise 
will  result  on  a  hard  surface,  which  is  known  as  the  beat, 
a  familiar  sound  in  the  concussion  of  horses'  hoofs  on  hard 


52  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

pavements.  Each  of  the  legs  has  its  own  stride,  and  loco- 
motion results  when  the  four  limbs  engage  in  their  natural 
movement.  The  sequence  or  order  of  stride  differs  accord- 
ing to  the  gait,  which  may  be  denned  as  the  style  of  going 
of  the  horse.  Two  strides  may  be  taken  at  the  same  time, 
two  feet  hitting  the  ground  and  giving  beats  at  the  same 
moment,  as  in  the  case  of  the  front  and  opposite  hind  foot 
in  the  trot.  The  familiar  rack  (single-foot)  illustrates  the 
strides  occurring  separately  and  rhythmically,  one  beat  at 
a  time.  The  kind  of  gait  is  indicated  by  the  time  shown  in 
the  beats,  expressed  in  the  separate  strides  taken  to  complete 
the  movement.  Thus  the  experienced  saddle  horse  critic, 
hearing  the  beats  of  the  hoofs  of  the  horse  under  saddle  on 
a  dark  night,  may  recognize  the  gait  without  seeing  the 
horse.  The  length  of  stride  differs  greatly,  being  shortest 
in  a  walk,  yet  even  then  naturally  varying  according  to 
conditions,  such  as  size  of  horse,  gait,  length  of  leg,  de- 
gree of  speed,  etc.  Abnormal  conditions,  such  as  lameness, 
or  character  of  shoe,  also  affect  the  length  of  stride. 
Different  weights  or  forms  of  shoes  may  materially  change 
the  length  of  stride.  The  elevation  of  the  stride  is  also  quite 
variable,  and  is  affected  by  the  gait,  weight  of  the  hoof  or 
shoe,  the  surface  travelled  over,  etc.  The  height  of  stride 
will  be  affected  by  the  natural  growth  of  hoof,  if  super- 
fluous weight  is  not  removed  within  due  season.  The  true- 
ness  of  stride  or  gait  is  of  great  importance  and  is  impos- 
sible if  the  legs  and  feet  are  not  carried  straight  and  true. 
Referring  to  a  true,  or  what  may  be  termed  a  "square 
gait,'7  Jordan  says,3  "A  square  gait  means  nothing  more 
or  less  than  an  even  and  equal  extension  backward  and 
forward  for  all  the  four  moving  legs  of  the  horse,  with  two 
pairs  of  feet  striking  the  ground  at  equal  intervals  of  time 
and  distance  during  a  given  trial."  Interference  at  the 
ankle,  crookedness  of  limb,  as  for  example  at  the  hock,  will 
affect  the  squareness  or  trueness  of  gait.  The  rapidity  of 

3  The  Gait   of  the  American  Trotter  and  Pacer.      Rudolph   Jordan,   Jr.,   New 
York,    1910,    p.    2. 


THE   HORSE   IN  MOTION 


53 


stride  relates  to  the  time  used  in  passing  through  the  entire 
movement  of  the  limb.  Speed  or  rapidity  of  stride  is  due 
to  various  conditions,  among  which  emphasis  might  be 
placed  on  type  and  weight  of  horse,  inheritance,  energy, 
gait,  size  and  weight  of  foot,  character  of  shoe,  etc.  '  *  There 
is  an  exact  proportion  between  speed,  length  of  toe  and 
energy/'  says  Jor- 
dan,4 * '  which  might 
well  be  expressed 
by  saying  that  the 
longer  the  toe  the 
greater  the  amount 
of  energy  neces- 
sary to  acquire  the 
same  speed,  and  the 
easier  the  leverage 
at  the  toe,  the  less 
will  be  the  energy 
required  to  main- 
tain that  speed. 
Rapidity  of  action 
or  motion,  it  may 
be  argued,  requires 
as  much  and  more 
of  that  energy  than  the  long,  sweeping  stride. ' ' 

The  gaits  of  the  horse  under  natural  conditions  are,  the 
walk,  trot,  pace  and  gallop.  However,  methods  of  training 
have  produced  variations  from  these  that  are  recognized 
gaits.  A  full  comprehension  of  the  modified  gaits,  whereby 
one  may  recognize  them  readily,  is  not  easily  obtained,  and 
can  only  be  secured  through  careful  study  and  observation. 

The  walk  is  a  slow  four-beat  gait,  in  which  the  limbs 
move  in  sequence,  one  after  the  other.  Usually  a  front  foot 
is  raised  first.  The  walk  varies  in  style  and  character,  and 
Hayes  has  sub-divided  it  into  five  classes,  as  follows : 5  The 


Fig.  25. — "The  walk  is  a  slow,  four-beat  gait." 
(Courtesy  American  Breeder.) 


4  The  Gait  of  the  American  Trotter  and  Pacer,  1910,  p.  89. 

BThe  Points  of  the  Horse.     M.  H.  Hayes,   3d  ed.,  London,   1904. 


54 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


short  stepping  walk,  in  which  the  points  of  the  hind  feet 
do  not  come  as  far  forward  as  those  of  the  forefeet  of  their 
respective  sides ;  the  ordinary  walk,  in  which  they  more  or 
less  cover  them;  the  long  striding  walk,  in  which  they  go 
clear  in  front  of  them;  the  high  stepping  walk,  in  which 
the  feet  are  raised  off  the  ground  higher  than  usual;  and 
the  walk  in  heavy  draft,  in  which  the  step  is  short  as  in  heavy 
pulling,  a  fore  and  hind  limb  working  better  together  as 
diagonals.  The  walk  is  not  only  a  restful  gait,  but  in 
general  draft  operation  is  the  one  of  first  importance. 
Therefore  it  should  be  active  and  strong,  accomplishing  a 
maximum  of  progress  for  this  class  of  speed. 

The  trot  is  a  fast,  two-beat  gait,  in  which  the  diagonally 
opposite  limbs  move  together.  The  trotter  is  often  referred 
to  as  a  diagonally  gaited  horse.  The  trot  may  be  divided 
into  several  sub-classes,  dependent  on  the  length  and  rapid- 
ity of  strides.  Hayes  gives  three  kinds  of  trot :  slow,  ordi- 


Fig.  26. — "The  trot  is  a  fast,  two-beat  gait,  in  which  the  diagonally 
opposite  limbs  move  together."  (Courtesy  Mr.  S.  L.  Howe,  British 
Columbia.) 


THE   HORSE   IN   MOTION  55 

nary  and  fast,  according  to  the  stride  and  speed.  Gay 
also  gives  three  kinds,6  the  fast  stepping,  high  stepping  and 
saddle  trot.  These  he  defines  as  follows :  * '  The  fast  stepping 
trot,  characterized  by  the  length  of  stride  and  rapidity  with 
which  the  individual  strides  are  taken  and  constituting  the 
gait  of  the  harness  race  horse;  the  high  stepping  trot, 
characterized  by  the  height  and  elasticity  of  the  stride,  the 
horse  placing  himself,  going  collectedly  and  marking  each 
step  with  extreme  flexion,  as  represented  in  the  harness 
show  horse;  and  the  saddle  trot,  characterized  by  a  square, 
springy,  collected  and  balanced  stride,  executed  in  perfect 
rhythm,  and  with  the  utmost  precision  in  order  to  secure 
the  comfort  and  security  of  the  rider.  The  saddle  trot  is 
distinct  from  the  long,  swinging  stride  of  the  trotter,  also 
the  high,  sometimes  pounding,  step  of  the  actor,  and  should 
reveal  none  of  the  roll  or  side  motion  of  the  lateral  gait 
into  which  saddle  horses  degenerate. "  This  gait  is  less 
tiresome  to  the  horse  than  are  others  involving  speed  beyond 
the  walk,  for  the  reason  that  the  body  is  best  kept  in  equi- 
librium in  diagonal  movement  of  the  limbs.  Of  the  rapid 
gaits,  the  trot  is  the  most  universal  and  useful. 

The  pace,  also  known  as  the  amble,  is  a  fast,  two-beat 
gait,  in  which  the  legs  on  the  same  side  move  together  in 
unison.  The  pacer  is  also  often  termed  the  ' '  side  wheeler. ' ' 
This  gait,  which  may  be  either  natural  or  acquired,  shows 
wide  variation  in  style  of  locomotion.  Some  horses  pace 
so  wide  as  to  make  their  gait  very  conspicuous  and  un- 
attractive, while  others  possess  a  comparatively  smooth  and 
level  movement.  The  late  Prof.  John  A.  Craig,  a  great 
lover  of  the  light  harness  horse,  has  referred  to  this  gait 
in  these  interesting  words : 7  "  Horses  pace  in  many  ways, 
some  lurching,  others  shuffling  and  many  more  wobbling 
in  an  unsightly  manner;  but,  however  they  may  go,  they 
are  nearly  all  characterized  by  possessing  speed.  A  level 

«The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Live  Stock  Judging.  Carl  W.  Gay,  1914, 
p.  99. 

7  Judging   Live   Stock,   6th   ed.,    1904,   p.   20. 


56 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  27. — ''The  pace  is  a  fast,  two-beat  gait,  in  which  the  legs  on  the 
same  side  move  together  in  unison." 


and  true  pacer  displays  a  sightly  gait.  In  pacing  level  and 
true  the  body  remains  steadier  than  in  any  other  movement. 
The  legs  move  in  harmony  with  the  directness  of  a  machine. 
The  nervy,  machine-like  pace  peculiar  to  many  of  the  fast 
pacing  animals  is  a  study  in  the  degree  to  which  the  mini- 
mum of  effort  results  in  the  maximum  of  speed.  .  .  .  As  a 
rule,  the  pace  from  the  standpoint  of  the  spectator  is  an 
unsightly  gait,  but  one  that  is  usually  thoroughly  enjoyable 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  driver."  The  pace  and  trot 
are  interchangeable  gaits,  and  we  find  light  harness  horses 
of  note,  that  have  racing  records  with  each  gait.  Goubaux 
and  Barriere  state8  that  certain  colts,  at  first  amblers 
(pacers)  will  at  a  later  period  learn  to  trot,  and  reversely, 
some  horses  primarily  good  trotters,  amble  towards  the 
decline  of  life,  through  fatigue  and  usage.  The  camel, 
dromedary,  and  giraffe  are  natural  amblers.  Steepness  of 
croup,  and  a  bent  condition  of  the  hocks,  has  often  seemed 
associated  with  the  pacing  gait,  for  in  fact  many  of  our 

8  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,  2d  ed.,  Phil.,  1904,  p.  506. 


THE   HORSE  IN  MOTION  57 

most  noted  pacers  have  possessed  this  conformation.  Great 
speed  attends  this  gait,  it  being  regarded  as  about  one 
second  faster  on  the  race  course  than  that  of  the  trot. 

The  gallop  is  a  fast,  leaping  three-beat  gait.  In  this 
case,  the  combined  beat  of  diagonal  feet  occurs  between  two 
successive  beats  of  the  other  two  feet.  For  a  brief  period 
between  strides  the  body  is  in  the  air,  the  feet  all  being 
free  from  the  ground.  In  this  gait  there  is  considerable 


Fig.  28.— "The  gallop  is  a  fast,  leaping,  three-beat  gait."  Skeleton  of 
famous  Thoroughbred  Sysonby  at  full  speed.  Prepared  and  mounted  by 
Mr.  S.  II.  Chubb.  (Courtesy  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.) 

wear  on  the  fore  foot  which  naturally  leads,  and  the  diago- 
nal hind,  which  follows,  consequently  it  is  desirable  to 
change  the  lead  of  the  members  so  as  to  afford  them  relief. 
The  gallop  ranges  from  slow  to  fast,  and  in  the  latter  case 
may  develop  into  a  four-beat  movement.  This  is  the  natural 
gait  of  the  horse  when  free  from  the  restraints  of  man, 
and  it  is  also  the  gait  of  the  Thoroughbred,  or  running 
horse,  the  holder  of  the  fastest  records  made  by  the  horse. 
The  canter  is  a  form  of  gallop,  slow,  deliberate,  graceful 


58  JUDGING   FARM  ANIMALS 

and  easy,  in  which,  the  weight  is  largely  borne  by  the  hind- 
quarters, with  the  front  limbs  carried  somewhat  high. 
" There  is  a  vast  difference,  however,"  says  GL  G.  Burton, 
in  an  address  to  Kansas  horse  breeders,  9  t  i  between  the 
canter  of  a  gaited  saddler  and  the  gallop  of  an  unrestrained 
horse,  or  the  lope  of  a  broncho.  Any  horse  will  lope  or  gal- 
lop when  pushed  beyond  his  trotting  or  pacing  speed, 
but  the  gaited  saddler  goes  from  a  walk,  or  even  from  a 
standstill,  into  a  graceful,  enjoyable,  hammock-like  motion 
which  we  call  a  canter.  The  term  is  inadequate  to  the 
luxurious  movement,  but  we  must  consider  the  thing  and 
not  the  name.  His  legs  are  never  so  well  under  him  as 
when  in  the  canter  and  his  neck  is  never  so  beautifully 
arched. ' ' 

The  rack  is  a  four-beat  gait,  each  foot  striking  the 
ground  separately.  This  gait  has  been  in  times  past  popu- 
larly known  in  America  as  the  "single-foot"  gait,  a  term 
not  now  in  favor  and  going  out  of  use.  This  is  not  a  natural 
gait,  being  an  evolution  from  the  pace  or  amble,  for  it  is 
the  result  of  special  education,  and  is  notably  a  feature  of 
the  five-gaited  saddle  horse.  It  is  a  hard  gait  but  it  is 
fascinating  to  the  expert.  Again  quoting  Mr.  Burton,  "he 
must  go  at  a  tension  and  rack  against  the  bit,  and  he  must 
get  action  from  his  hocks  and  shoulders  as  well  as  from  his 
knees.  If  he  goes  in  form,  he  will  carry  a  high  head  and  a 
high  tail,  arch  his  neck  and  hold  a  vertical  face.  He  must 
be  pulled  together  and  remain  collected  from  start  to  finish. 
If  he  goes  in  a  pure,  clear,  bold  rack,  his  feet  make  a  four- 
beat  music  the  rhythm  of  which  cannot  be  mistaken  for 
that  of  any  other  gait." 

The  running  walk  is,  as  the  name  implies,  a  gait  which 
represents  the  horse  just  passing  from  a  walk  into  a  faster 
gait,  closely  resembling  the  rack.  It  is  a  slow,  four-beat 
gait,  that  is  faster  and  easier  than  a  flat-footed  walk.  It 
is  an  easy  locomotion,  and  when  the  horse  is  in  full  sympa- 
thy with  his  work,  he  keeps  time  with  his  step  by  nodding 

8  Farmers'  Review,  Aug.  29,  1900. 


THE   HORSE   IN   MOTION 


59 


liis  head  and  perhaps  flopping  his  ears.  This  is  a  business 
gait,  in  wliieh  six  or  seven  miles  an  hour  is  easily  covered. 
The,  horse  will  journey  from  sixty  to  seventy-five  miles  a 
day  at  the  running  walk  without  severe  fatigue  to  him- 
self or  his  rider. 

The  fox  trot  is  a  slow,  short  trot,  similar  to  the  run- 
ning walk,  but  characterized  by  the  hind  legs  assuming 
a  pacing  movement.  It  is  said  to  be  a  "loose-jointed" 
motion  not  found  in  other  gaits.  Some  horses  adjust 
themselves  to  this  gait  more  easily  than  to  the  running 
walk,  which  it  resembles  in  being  an  easy,  all  day  busi- 
ness gait. 

The  jump,  while  a  process  of  locomotion,  is  not  a  gait. 
This  movement  consists  in  the  raising  of  the  fore  feet, 
and  bringing  the  hind  feet  well  under  the  body  towards 
the  center  of  gravity.  This  is  followed  by  a  powerful 


Fig.  29.—' 


'As  the  horse  comes  down,  the  front  feet  hit  the  ground  first.' 
(Courtesy  Rider  and  Driver.) 


60  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

straightening  out  of  the  hind  legs,  in  which  the  horse 
propels  himself  over  the  obstacle  he  seeks  to  hurdle.  In 
this  process  the  knees  must  be  well  bent,  and  the  hind 
legs  carried  up  close  to  the  body  in  passing  over  the 
obstacle  that  the  toes  may  not  strike.  As  the  horse  comes 
down,  the  front  feet  hit  the  ground  first,  after  which  he 
rises  to  move  on,  the  hind  feet  striking  slightly  in  ad- 
vance of  the  points  of  contact  of  the  front  feet.  The  jump- 
er is  a  popular  horse  in  Europe,  especially  in  the  military 
service,  and  among  the  gentry  who  indulge  in  steeple  chas- 
ing, fox  hunting,  etc. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  TYPES  AND  CLASSES  OP  HORSES. 

SINCE  the  day  of  the  primeval  horse,  this  animal  during 
the  centuries  has  passed  through  a  remarkable  evolution. 
The  influence  of  climate,  soil  and  other  features  of  environ- 
ment, and  the  breeding  operations  of  man,  has  resulted  in 
the  development  of  horses  strikingly  different  in  type, 
character  and  purpose.  At  the  present  time  it  is  assumed 
that  all  horses  may  be  classified  into  four  distinct  types  or 
groups.  Within  each  of  these  types  will  be  found  sub- 
types which  combine  the  essential  features  of  the  type  as 
a  whole,  yet  differing  in  certain  details  of  size,  conforma- 
tion and  character.  The  four  types  in  question,  which 
will  be  considered  in  detail,  are  the  following:  (a)  The 
draft  or  power  type ;  ( & )  The  light  harness  or  speed  type ; 
(c)  The  heavy  harness  type;  (d) .  The  saddle  type. 

JUDGING  THE  DRAFT  OR  POWER  TYPE  OF  HORSE  BY 
SCALE  OF  POINTS. 

The  draft  or  power  type  of  horse  is  more  especially 
needed  on  the  farm  and  in  trade,  and  in  spite  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  motor  vehicle,  this  type  of  horse  bids  fair 
to  increase  in  importance.  For  this  reason  it  is  assigned 
first  consideration  as  a  subject  of  study.  Genuine  draft 
horses  of  merit  are  quite  likely  in  future  to  gain  in  favor 
on  the  farm  and  to  be  in  active  demand  at  remunerative 
prices.  The  motor  will  no  doubt  grow  in  importance,  but 
on  most  farms  and  in  short  haul  drayage  work  in  the  city, 
the  draft  horse  will  continue  to  be  the  main  reliance. 

The  following  score  card  gives  a  standard  scale  of  points 
for  a  draft  horse,  and  its  character  and  application  will 
be  considered  in  detail: 

61 


62 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  30. — The  Points  of  the  Draft  Horse:  1,  chin;  2,  nostril;  4,  nose; 
5,  face  ;  6,  forehead  ;  7,  eye ;  8,  ear  ;  9,  lower  jaw  ;  10,  throat-latch  ;  11, 
windpipe ;  12,  crest ;  13,  withers ;  14,  shoulder ;  15,  joint  shoulder ;  16, 
arm  ;  17,  elbow  ;  18,  forearm  ;  19,  knee  ;  20,  cannon  ;  21,  fetlock  joint ;  22, 
pastern  ;  23,  hoof ;  24,  foreflank  ;  25,  heart  girth  ;  26,  back  ;  27,  loin  ;  28, 
coupling  ;  29,  belly  ;  30,  hindflank  ;  31,  hip  ;  32,  croup ;  33,  tail ;  34,  but- 
tocks ;  35,  quarters  ;  38,  gaskin  ;  39,  hock. 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  DRAFT  HORSES. 

Standard  of 

SCALE    OF   POINTS  Perfect 

Score 
Age — Indicate  the  age  after  examining  the  teeth        

A— GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  18  Points: 

1.  Height — Estimated  hands    ....      Actual  hands 

2.  Weight — 2,000  Ibs.   a   standard.      Estimated   weight 

Actual  weight 4 

3.  Form,   broad,    deep,    massive,    low   set,   well   propor- 

tioned             4 

4.  Substance,    abundance   of   bone,    broad  joints,    right 

proportions 3 

5.  Quality,    bone    clean   and    hard,    tendons    and   joints 

well    defined,    skin    and    hair    fine,    features    of 
head  clearly  defined 4 

6.  Temperament,  energetic;   disposition  good      ..      ..        3 


Score  of 
Horse 
Studied 


THE   TYPES   AND  CLASSES   OF   HORSKS  ft 

Standard  of  Score  of 

SCALE   OF  POINTS  Perfect  Horse 

Score  Studied 
B — HEAD  AND  NECK,  7  Points: 

7.  Head,   lean,   in  proportion  to  size,   lower  ,ja\v   wide 

angled 1 

8.  Muzzle,  fine;   lips  thin,  even  and  trim;    nostrils  large         1 

9.  Eyes,     prominent,     large,     bright,     clear I 

10.  Forehead,    broad,    full         1 

11.  Ears,  medium  size,  pointed,  set  close        1 

12.  Neck,    medium    long,    muscular,    not    thick,    arched, 

throat-latch  clean;    windpipe  large 2 

C— FOREHAND,  25  Points: 

13.  Shoulders,   sloping,   smooth,   extending  well  into  back  'J  .... 

14.  Arras,    short,  muscular,   extending  forward,   elbow  in  1  .... 

15.  Forearms,    strongly  muscled,   wide,   long 2  .... 

1G.    Knees,  broad,   deep,   straight,   strongly  supported      .  .  2  .... 

17.  Cannons,  short,  wide,  lean,  tendons  large,  defined,  set 

well  back 2  .... 

18.  Fetlocks,  wide,   straight,  strong,  well  supported        .  .         1  .... 

19.  Pasterns     oblique,    about    45°,    of    moderate    length, 

strongly  carried 3  .... 

20.  Feet,  large,  round,  uniform,  straight;    bars   strong; 

sole  concave,  frog  large  and  elastic;  slope  of 
wall  parallel  to  pastern ;  heel  wide,  one-third 
length  of  toe;  horn  dense,  smooth 8  .... 

21.  Leg  position,  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular 

line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  two  lat- 
eral halves ;  a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from 
the  bony  prominence  on  the  shoulder  blade 
should  pass  through  the  center  of  the  elbow 
joint  and  meet  the  ground  at  the  center  of  the 
foot  4  .... 

D— BODY,  10  Points: 

22.  Withers,  well  defined  and  muscular 1  .... 

23.  Chest,  deep,  wide,  low,  large  girth 2  .... 

24.  Back,  short,   broad,  strongly  supported 2  .... 

25.  Loin,  short,  wide,  strongly  coupled 2  .... 

26.  Bibs,  long,  well  sprung,  close 2 

27.  Flanks,  low  and  full,  showing  low  underline   .  .       .  .  1  .... 

E— HINDQUARTERS,  30  Points: 

28.  Hips,  wide,  smooth,  muscular 2 

29.  Croup,  long,  wide,  not  markedly  drooping,  muscular        4 

30.  Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried        1 

31.  Thighs,  muscular  and   deep,  thick   in  the  quarters; 

stifles  prominent,  well  set 

32.  Gaskins,  wide,   muscular 

33.  Hocks,  straight,  wide,  deep,  clean  cut,  point  promi- 

nent, well  supported 6 

34.  Cannons,   short,   wide,  flat,   tendons  large,    set   well 

back        .  .       . '.       2  

35.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,   strong        1  .... 


64 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


SCALE   OF  POINTS 


36. 


Standard  of  Score  of 

Perfect  Horse 

Score  Studied 
Pasterns,   oblique,  medium  length,  smooth,  strongly 


carried, 

37.  Feet,  large,  round,  uniform,   straight;   bars   strong; 

sole  concave;  frog  large  and  elastic;  slope  of 
wall  parallel  to  pastern;  heel  wide  and  one- 
third  length  toe ;  horn  dense,  smooth 

38.  Leg  position,  viewed  from  the  rear,    a  perpendicular 

line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  lateral 
halves;  viewed  from  the  side,  this  same  line 
should  touch  the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet 
the  foot  surface  a  slight  distance  back  of  the 
heel.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the 
hip  joint  should  meet  the  foot  surface  midway 
between  heel  and  toe 

F— ACTION,  10  Points: 

39.  Walk,  straight,  strong,  elastic 

40.  Trot,  strong,  regular,  free,  easy        


Total 


100 


Fig.  31. — "The  attendant  will  pose  the  horse  at  rest.' 
(Courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF    HORSES 


The  general  appearance  of  the  horse  may  best  be 
measured  up  by  inspecting  him  as  he  stands  at  rest,  on  a 
slight  incline,  with  the  front  feet  a  trifle  higher  than  the 
rear  ones,  or  when  he  is  in  motion,  either  at  walk  or  trot. 
Therefore  the  judge  should  stand  a  convenient  distance 
away,  and  survey  the 
animal  as  a  whole  from 
front,  rear  and  side. 
The  attendant  will  pose 
the  horse  at  rest,  or 
move  him  at  walk  or 
trot  as  desired.  The 
judge  should  see  that  the 
horse  is  kept  in  a  proper 
position,  supporting  him- 
self equally  well  on  each 
leg  when  at  rest,  other- 
wise some  incorrect  ob- 
servations are  likely  to 
be  made.  In  this  exam- 
ination for  general  ap- 
pearance, the  height, 
weight,  form,  substance 

and  quality  are  to  be  considered  simply  as  relating  to  the 
animal  as  a  whole. 

The  height  of  the  draft  horse.— The  height  of  the  horse 
is  expressed  in  hands,  four  inches  representing  a  hand,  the 
width  across  the  widest  part  of  the  palm.  Special  sticks 
with  sliding  projecting  arms,  and  canes  marked  off  in 
inches  are  often  used  for  measuring  the  height.  The  hand 
itself  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  and  the  height  is 
usually  given  in  hands  and  inches,  as  for  example  17% 
or  17.5,  the  %  representing  a  half  a  hand,  or  two  inches. 
To  measure  the  height,  the  stick  is  placed  in  a  vertical 
position  just  back  of  the  front  feet,  so  that  the  projecting 
right  arm  of  the  measuring  stick  will  just  touch  the  top 
of  the  withers.  An  experienced  horseman,  knowing  the 


Fig.  32. — "The  stick  is  placed  in  a  ver- 
tical position  just  back  of  the  front  feet." 


66  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

height  of  his  chin,  stands  against  the  shoulder,  and  esti- 
mates the  difference  in  inches  between  the  elevation  of  the 
withers  and  his  chin,  and  so  secures  the  desired  informa- 
tion. The  height  of  the  draft  horse  may  be  said  to  range 
from  16  to  18  hands.  The  most  desirable  height  will  be 
within  16  or  17  hands.  This  height  should  be  the  result 
of  depth  of  body,  rather  than  length  of  leg.  The  height  at 
the  withers  should  be  at  least  equal  to  that  at  the  croup, 
though  some  authorities  contend  that  from  a  draft  point 
of  view  the  latter  should  not  be  so  high  as  the  former. 

The  weight  of  the  draft  horse  ranges  upward  from  1,600 
pounds,  with  2,000  the  weight  desirable  with  the  ideal 
animal  of  this  type  in  good  condition.  Yet  a  horse  that 
weighs  1,700  or  1,800  pounds  is  of  large  size,  and  may  rep- 
resent a  very  beautiful  draft  horse.  Draft  horses  are  also 
divided  into  sub-classes,  dependent  on  weight,  a  light  draft 
weighing  1,600  to  1JOQ  pounds,  medium  draft  1,700  to  1,850, 
and  heavy  draft  from  1,850  pounds  up.  The  condition  of 
the  horse  largely  affects  the  weight,  and  by  feeding  one 
may  easily  increase  the  weight  two  or  three  hundred  pounds. 
Consequently,  we  may  consider  that  weight  is  usually  re- 
lated to  height,  the  lighter  weighing  horses  showing  lower 
scale  of  elevation.  One  would  hardly  expect  to  find  a  ton 
horse  standing  as  low  as  16  hands.  We  should  rather  look 
for  such  a  horse  to  carry  his  great  weight  at  an  elevation 
consistent  with  good  form.  Weight  is  a  most  important 
feature  of  the  draft  type.  When  a  heavy  draft  horse 
moves  his  center  of  gravity  forward,  beyond  his  base  of 
support  or  footing,  he  brings  his  great  weight  up  against 
the  collar  with  such  power  that  the  load  is  moved  forward. 
In  hauling  a  heavy  load,  he  would  be  unable  to  keep  his 
foothold  and  move  forward,  were  it  not  for  his  body  weight 
which  gives  him  the  necessary  purchase  to  overcome  the 
weight  of  his  load.  On  a  smooth  roadway  the  horse  of 
heaviest  weight  furnishes  the  maximum  of  power,  for  here 
conditions  favor  the  least  friction  and  effort.  On  a  rough, 
uneven  surface,  a  lighter,  more  active  horse  may  accom- 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES  C7 

plish  the  work  with  comparatively  less  effort  than  a  heavy 
one,  for  the  animal  must  raise  his  body  at  each  step,  re- 
sulting in  much  more  labor  than  would  be  the  case  on  a 
smooth  surface.  This  logically  explains  why  heavy  draft 
horses  are  not  so  well  suited  to  rough,  hilly  farming  coun- 
tries, as  to  those  of  more  level  character.  In  judging  a 
horse  of  draft  type,  it  is  important  that  he  should  possess 
the  necessary  weight,  and  if  not  he  should  be  scored  ac- 
cordingly. Other  things  being  equal,  the  heavy  draft  horse 
brings  a  price  on  the  market  rather  comparable  with  his 
weight.  Craig  has  given  an  interesting  example  of  this,1 
in  which  he  shows  that  in  1893,  from  figures  of  sales  of  a 
Chicago  firm,  there  is  a  constant  increase  in  prices  from 
the  lighter  to  the  heavier  weights.  In  increasing  from  1,400 
to  1,800  pounds,  the  price  increased  about  $100,  an  average 
gain  in  value  of  25  cents  per  pound.  If  the  motor  is  to  be 
used  extensively  on  the  farm,  and  land  plowed  and  culti- 
vated by  its  use,  its  greatest  service  will  be  on  the  more 
level,  easily  tilled  areas.  This  will  result  in  the  draft 
horse  being  most  in  demand  on  small  farms  and  in  loca- 
tions where  the  land  is  uneven  or  hilly,  and  not  suited  to 
motor  cultivation.  In  such  case  it  is  quite  probable  that 
a  lighter  weight  draft  horse,  weighing  1,500  to  1,600 
pounds,  active,  and  well  suited  to  rolling  or  rough  land, 
will  be  most  in  demand. 

The  form  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  inspected  from 
various  points  of  view,  both  at  rest  and  in  motion.  From 
the  front  or  rear  the  body  should  appear  broad  or  thick ; 
viewed  from  one  side  it  should  show  great  depth.  The 
depth  of  body  through  the  chest,  and  the  length  of  the  leg, 
should  be  much  the  same,  these  proportions  giving  the  ani- 
mal what  is  termed  a  low  set  appearance,  bringing  his 
weight  comparatively  close  to  the  ground,  thereby  enabling 
him  to  use  it  to  the  best  advantage.  A  squareness  of  body- 
form  from  all  points,  with  massive  size,  indicates  the  nec- 
essary weight  through  which  power  is  secured.  From  a 

1  Judging  Live  Stock.      John   A.   Craig,   6th  ed.,   1904,   p.   34. 


68  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

distance  the  form  should  appear  in  good  proportions,  no 
one  part  being  over  or  under  developed.  As  the  draft 
horse  is  bred  for  power,  he  should  possess  a  marked  de- 
velopment of  short  rather  than  long  muscle,  especially  in 
the  neck,  over  the  back,  loins  and  croup,  and  on  the  legs 
above  knee  and  hock.  If  his  frame  is  large  enough,  is  well 
balanced,  and  strongly  muscled,  he  will  furnish  the  require- 
ments necessary  for  a  true  draft  horse.  The  term  "blocky," 
as  often  applied  to  the  draft  horse,  means  that  his  form  is 
compact,  that  is  broad,  deep  and  short,  rather  than  too 
long,  showing  a  comparatively  square  and  heavy  form  from 
which  great  power  might  be  expected. 

Substance  in  the  horse  refers  to  the  amount  and  charac- 
ter of  the  material  of  which  the  animal  form  is  composed. 
This  especially  applies  in  this  case  to  size  or  scale.  If  we 
compare  two  horses  of  the  same  type  and  general  character 
in  which  one  exhibits  a  more  desirable  weight  and  heavi- 
ness of  outline  than  the  other,  with  larger  joints  and  bones 
in  the  legs,  we  say  this  stronger  bodied  animal  shows  the 
more  substance  of  the  two.  It  is  quite  common  to  refer  to 
the  substance  as  shown  in  the  size  of  bone.  A  horse  with 
too  small  a  bone,  as  shown  in  the  cannon,  would  be  lacking 
in  substance.  Therefore  it  is  highly  important  to  possess 
substance  without  attaining  any  excess  of  development  or 
coarseness.  If  it  could  be  measured  in  units  of  the  same 
class,  that  substance  would  be  most  desirable  which  indi- 
cated the  greatest  degree  of  strength.  Substance  should 
always  be  associated  with  quality,  for  substance  without 
quality  would  indicate  weakness  rather  than  strength 
whether  applied  to  muscle  or  bone.  Therefore,  in  judging 
the  draft  horse  we  emphasize  substance  as  of  great  im- 
portance. 

Quality  in  the  horse  is  manifested  especially  in  the  bone, 
tendons,  skin  and  hair,  as  well  as  in  the  general  confor- 
mation. Quality  relates  to  the  cellular  structure  of  the 
bone,  flesh  and  hair,  as  well  as  to  the  finish  or  perfection 
of  the  animal  in  part  or  whole.  Quality  is  intended  to 


THE  TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES 


69 


indicate  a  degree  of  superiority,  though  of  course  we  have 
animals  of  poor  as  well  as  good  quality.  Quality  is  usually 
an  evidence  of  superior  breeding,  animals  of  inferior 
quality  as  a  rule  inheriting  the  same  from  inferior  ancestry. 
With  the  horse,  the  bone  is  regarded  as  of  great  import- 
ance. The  composition  and  cellular  structure  of  the  bone 
varies  much.  What  is  desirable  is  a  hard,  dense  bone  with 
a  strong,  compact  cellular  structure,  rather  than  a  coarse, 
porous  and  weak  one.  Unduly  large  joints  and  bone  show 
lack  of  quality  and  strength.  The  cannon  bone  is  commonly 
used  as  a  measure  of  quality  of  bone  and  this  should  be  flat, 
deep  and  smooth.  Horses  with  such  bone  and  clean,  well- 
defined  joints  manifest  superior  quality  and  are  capable  of 


Fig.  33. — "The  long  hair  or  feather  down  the  back  of  the  cannon  is 
highly  valued  as  an  evidence  of  quality." 


70  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

far  more  work  than  where  these  features  are  lacking.  The 
tendons  which  lie  back  of  the  cannon  bone,  if  clearly  defined, 
indicate  quality  and  strength  of  limb.  The  character  of  skin 
and  hair  is  also  an  important  indicator  of  quality.  Minute 
glands  in  the  skin  give  off  oil  which  keeps  the  skin  soft 
and  elastic  and  furnishes  the  gloss  to  the  hair.  In  case  of 
sickness  these  glands  may  not  work  and  then  the  skin  is 
dry  and  harsh  and  the  hair  is  lacking  in  lustre.  On  the 
draft  horse  the  skin  is  thicker  than  on  a  race  horse,  but  even 
then  it  is  not  nearly  so  thick  as  on  beef  cattle.  It  should 
be  mellow  and  elastic  to  the  touch  and  should  be  covered 
thickly  with  fine,  lustrous  hair.  The  horse  that  possesses 
such  a  coat  of  hair  is  sure  to  possess  all  the  essentials  of 
quality.  The  foretop,  man,e  and  tail  should  be  well  sup- 
plied with  hair  of  both  length  and  quality.  On  hairy 
legged  horses,  notably  the  Clydesdale  and  Shire,  the  long 
hair  or  ''feather"  down  the  back  of  the  cannon  is  highly 
valued  as  an  evidence  of  quality,  and  especially  in  its  re- 
lationship to  the  bone..  A  feather  long  and  fine  in  quality 
is  much  admired.  Quality  is  also  manifested  in  the  clearly 
defined  appearance  of  the  head  in  particular.  "When  the 
head  shows  a  cleanly  chiseled  form,  prominent,  expressive 
eyes,  neat  and  well  set  ears,  thin  lips  and  good  sized  nos- 
trils, quality  is  very  apparent.  Quality  plays  a  most  im- 
portant part  in  the  market  place  and  show  ring.  For  this 
reason  experienced  horsemen  give  special  attention  to  the 
skin  and  coat  of  hair,  feeding  and  grooming  to  secure  the 
best  effect.  The  draft  horse  with  quality  will  always  com- 
mand a  much  higher  price  than  one  otherwise  equally  good. 
No  horse  of  inferior  quality  should  be  given  high  rating  by 
a  judge. 

The  temperament  of  the  draft  horse,  as  usually  ap- 
plied to  domestic  animals,  refers  to  the  relationship  of  the 
nerves  to  the  body  and  functional  activity,  and  is  discussed 
elsewhere,  on  page  45.  The  temperament  should  be  suited 
to  the  draft  type,  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  activity  and 
animation.  Dullness,  slowness  and  indifference  are  quite 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES  71 

undesirable  temperamental  features.  The  disposition 
should  be  good.  Draft  horses,  as  a  rule,  are  of  gentle  dis- 
position and  not  so  prone  to  develop  vicious  habits  as  the 
light  harness  horse. 

The  head  of  the  draft  horse  is  large,  and  in  length  is  in 
proportion  to  the  length  of  body  as  I:2y2.  Comparatively 
speaking,  the  draft  horse  head  is  larger  than  that  on  the 
smaller  class  animal.  The  head  should  be  lean  with  little 
superfluous  flesh,  and  in  proper  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
body.  A  fleshy  head  indicates  a  soft  body.  However, 
there  is  not  the  bony  prominence  of  head  one  sees  on  the 
racing  horse.  Well  developed  muscles  about  the  jaws,  how- 
ever, are  regarded  as  a  sign  of  strong  constitution.  The 
lower  jaw  should  be  well  angled,  allowing  ample  room  for 
the  larynx  which  lies  between  the  separated  bones  of  the 
jaw.  The  front  of  the  head  or  face  varies  considerably  in 
outline.  Some  horses  have  a  straight  profile,  others  a  con- 
cave or  dished  face,  and  still  others  a  convex  or  Roman 
face.  Generally  speaking  the  straight  face  is  preferable, 
the  nasal  passages  thus  being  unobstructed,  and  the  contour 
generally  most  pleasing,  though  the  Roman  face  is  rather 
common  among  draft  horses,  the  Suffolk  being  noted  for 
this  feature. 

The  muzzle  of  the  draft  horse  should  show  a  good 
quality  in  thin  rather  than  heavy  lips,  which  should  come 
together  evenly  without  one  lip  materially  extending  over 
the  other.  The  muzzle  should  be  wide,  square  at  the  corners, 
and  deep  enough  to  permit  of  easy  feeding.  A  narrow, 
small,  pinched  mouth  is  characteristic  of  a  poor  feeder.  The 
nostrils  should  be  large,  yet  not  dilated,  unless  following 
marked  exertion.  The  nostril  is  naturally  somewhat  oval 
and  apparently  partially  closed  by  a  fold  of  skin  on  its 
upper  side.  A  large  orifice  naturally  presupposes  connec- 
tion with  well  developed  nasal  tubes  and  strong  breathing 
capacity. 

The  eyes  of  the  horse  should  be  oval  rather  than  round, 
prominent,  reasonably  large,  set  wide  apart  and  have  thin, 


72 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  34. — "The  eye  is  generally  regarded  as  an  indicator  of  disposition." 

smooth  eyelids.  In  general  the  eye  is  located  at  a  point 
about  one-third  of  the  way  between  poll  and  muzzle.  A 
small  eye  is  thought  to  indicate  a  sulky  or  mean  disposi- 
tion, and  lack  of  courage.  A  large,  mild  eye,  not  set  oblique- 
ly, indicates  a  good  temper.  In  fact  the  eye  is  generally 
regarded  as  an  indicator  of  disposition  as  well  as  evidence 
of  capacity  to  see.  The  color  of  the  eye  is  due  to  the  pig- 
ment in  the  iris,  the  portion  which  immediately  surrounds 
the  pupil.  When  the  iris  is  colorless  the  eye  appears  to  be 
white  with  the  peculiar  "wall  eye"  or  "watch  eye"  as  a 
result.  The  ordinary  white  of  the  eye  is  an  outer  coat, 
which  is  covered  more  or  less  by  the  eyelids.  When  this 
white  is  too  conspicuous  a  bad  disposition  is  indicated,  in  the 
opinion  of  many  horsemen.  The  white  shows  most  when 
the  horse  gives  a  rearward  glance,  and  kickers  especially 
exhibit  most  white  when  just  about  to  kick. 

The  forehead  of  the  horse,  if  broad  and  very  slightly 
arched,  indicates  an  intelligent  and  generous  disposition. 
As  has  already  been  shown  (page  30),  the  brain  of  the 


THE   TYPES   AND  CLASSES  OF   HORSES  73 

horse  is  comparatively  small,  yet  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
forehead  is  universally  regarded  as  an  important  indicator 
of  intelligence  and  disposition.  Hayes  states2  that  "Col. 
John  Anderson,  late  Inspecting  Veterinary  Surgeon,  Bom- 
bay Army  (than  whom  no  better  judge  of  a  horse  exists), 
remarked  to  me  many  years  ago,  that  a  prominent  forehead, 
or  rise  between  the  eyes,  is  an  indicator  of  a  bad,  or  at  least 
of  a  wayward  temper  in  a  horse,  which  is  a  theory  I  have 
seen  verified  in  many  instances/'  In  further  discussing 
the  forehead,  Hayes  emphasizes  a  good  width  of  forehead 
between  the  eyes  because  it ' '  indicates,  as  a  rule,  free  breath- 
ing power  and  strong  muscles  of  mastication ;  for  the  bones 
of  that  part  (frontal  bones)  form  a  portion  of  the  roof  of 
the  chambers  through  which  air  passes  on  its  way  to  the 
lungs,  and  gives  attachment  to  a  powerful  muscle  which 
aids  in  closing  the  jaws,  and  which  is  fixed  in  the  large 
depression  that  is  just  above  the  eyes."  If  a  tendency  to 
fullness  or  prominence  of  forehead  exists,  it  should  be  high 
up,  and  just  below  the  forehead  band  of  the  bridle.  Nar- 
rowness implies  lack  of  intelligence,  while  a  dished  condi- 
tion between  the  eyes  suggests  a  similar  mental  quality. 

The  ears  of  the  horse  should  be  placed  reasonably  high 
up  yet  with  the  attachments  a  trifle  below  the  poll.  The 
ears  should  be  pointed,  of  medium  size,  with  much  less 
distance  between  their  roots  than  between  the  outer  edges 
of  the  eye  sockets.  The  ear  is  an  important  evidence  of 
quality.  It  should  have  a  neat  attachment  to  the  head, 
be  thin  of  texture,  and  have  a  covering  of  fine  hair  on  the 
general  surface,  with  long,  silky  hairs  on  the  edge  of  the 
outer  orifice.  There  seems  to  be  considerable  difference 
of  opinion  among  prominent  authorities  on  what  is  desir- 
able in  size,  form  and  position  of  the  ear.  Goubaux  and 
Barriere  state, 3  that  horses  having  short  ears  are  usually 
energetic  and  courageous,  and  that  "small  ears  diminish 
the  apparent  size  of  the  head,  render  the  physiognomy 

2  The  Points  of  the  Horse.     M.  H.  Hayes,  London,  3d  ed.,   1904,  p.  194. 

3  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,  2d  ed.,  1904. 


74 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


more  pleasant  and  ex- 
pressive, and  brighten 
the  eye. ' '  Hayes  quotes4 
Carson,  who  states  that 
"there  can  be  no 
greater  ornament  than 
long,  fine,  active  look- 
ing, upright,  tolerably 
close-set  ears,  with  the 
points  a  little  inclined 
toward  each  other.  I 
never  saw  a  soft  consti- 
tutioned  horse  with 
ears  of  this  descrip- 
tion. ' '  Fearnsley,  writ- 
ing of  the  ears,  says,5 
"they  ought  not  to  be 
too  large,  indeed  they 
can  hardly  be  too 
small."  The  carriage 
of  the  ears  indicates 

ability  of  hearing  and  something  of  the  disposition. 
Horses  more  or  less  deaf  tend  to  keep  the  ears  point- 
ing forward  or  to  one  side,  as  though  listening  for  sounds. 
Considerable  play  of  the  ears,  or  change  of  position,  in- 
dicates an  active  disposition  and  interest  in  what  is  taking 
place  about  him.  Ears  rather  constantly  inclined  to  the 
rear  are  generally  regarded  as  indicating  a  mean  disposi- 
tion. Lop  ears  denote  a  stolid  or  sluggish  temperament,  and 
not  infrequently  are  a  feature  of  old  age. 

The  neck  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  of  moderate 
length,  muscular,  yet  not  too  thick,  slightly  arched,  and 
neatly  attached  to  the  head  and  shoulders.  A  moderate 
length,  with  a  tendency  to  shortness,  is  desirable  in  the 
draft  horse,  for  the  muscles  of  the  neck  are  called  into  use 


Fig.  35. — "The  ear  is  an  important  evi- 
dence of  quality." 


4  The  Points  of  the  Horse,   3d  ed.,   1904,  p.  210. 

6  Lessons  in  Horse  Judging.     William  Fearnsley,  London,  1879,  p.  49. 


THE  TYPES  AND  CLASSES  OF  HORSES 


75 


Fig.  3G. — "The  nock  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  of  moderate  length, 
muscular,  yet  not  too  thick,  slightly  arched  and  neatly  attached  to  head 
and  shoulders."  (Courtesy  Illinois  University.) 

in  the  hauling  of  loads,  and  therefore  should  be  thicker  and 
shorter  than  in  the  light  harness  or  pleasure  horse.  Ex- 
treme length  is  a  weak  muscular  conformation,  while  too 
short  a  neck  does  not  allow  sufficient  freedom  in  use,  nor 
ease  in  grazing.  Thinness  of  neck  is  not  consistent  with 
strong  muscling,  yet  a  very  thick  neck  suggests  fat  rather 
than  muscle.  A  slight  crest  or  arch  of  neck  adds  to  the 
symmetry  of  outline,  but  when  heavy  indicates  a  develop- 
ment of  undesirable  fat.  A  ewe  neck  or  slight  downward 
curve  from  a  straight  top  line,  is  not  popular,  and  suggests 
a  lack  of  muscular  form.  ''The  region  of  the  neck,"  ac- 


76  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

cording  to  Goubaux  and  Barriere  6  ' '  should  be  examined 
as  to  its  form,  direction  or  carriage,  volume,  length,  mode 
of  attachment  to  the  head,  and  its  movements."  The 
heavy,  muscular  neck  of  the  draft  horse  is  important  as  an 
aid  in  shifting  the  center  of  gravity  forward  and  bringing 
as  much  power  into  the  collar  as  possible.  The  throat-latch, 
that  portion  at  the  angle  where  the  lower  jaw  and  neck  join, 
should  be  neat  and  trim,  showing  no  unnatural  fullness 
about  the  windpipe,  suggestive  of  difficulty  in  respiration. 
One  should  have  no  difficulty  in  feeling  the  windpipe, 
which  should  be  large  and  clearly  defined.  The  neck  should 
fit  into  the  shoulders  with  some  curve  on  each  side  and  with- 
out any  depression  on  top  where  joining  the  withers,  thus 
providing  a  snug  and  smooth  resting  place  for  the  collar. 
The  carriage  of  the  neck  should  be  graceful  and  com- 
paratively high,  expressive  of  constitutional  vigor  and 
spirit,  and  accompanied  by  a  free  movement  of  the  fore- 
limbs.  A  mane  of  good  length  is  desirable  since  in  summer 
it  provides  important  protection  from  flies. 

The  shoulders  of  the  draft  horse  should  slope  fairly  well 
into  the  back,  though  not  to  so  great  a  degree  as  in  the  race 
horse.  As  a  general  principle,  the  more  oblique  the 
shoulder,  the  easier  it  is  for  a  horse  to  raise  and  move  for- 
ward his  legs.  In  view  of  the  fact,  however,  that  the  draft 
horse  is  to  walk  rather  than  trot,  a  moderate  degree  of 
obliqueness  will  afford  sufficient  ease  of  locomotion.  Meas- 
urements of  Goubaux  and  Barriere  have  shown  7  an  angle 
of  65  to  70  degrees  to  be  most  desirable  for  draft  purposes. 
The  stride  accompanying  the  straight  shoulder,  however, 
it  must  be  remembered,  is  harder  and  brings  more  concus- 
sion than  in  the  case  of  the  oblique  shoulder.  The  heavy 
draft  horse  with  straight  shoulders  used  on  city  pavements 
has  an  inclination  to  foot  trouble  and  especially  side  bones. 
The  shoulders  should  be  wide,  with  ample  space  for  strong, 
muscular  attachment,  and  the  blade  should  be  smoothly 

•  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,  2d  ed.,  Philadelphia,   1904,  p.  99. 
.,  p.  210. 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES 


77 


Fig.  37. — "The  more  oblique  the  shoulder  the 
easier  it  is  for  the  horse  to  raise  and  move  for- 
ward his  legs." 


covered.  The  top  of 
the  shoulder  should 
be  carried  close 
into  the  back,  there- 
by securing  the 
strongest  muscular 
connection.  The 
position  of  the 
shoulder  as  relates 
to  the  use  of  the 
collar  is  especially 
important  with  the 
draft  horse.  It 
must  not  only  have 
desirable  slant,  but 
also  a  sufficient 
ledge  or  front  edge 

along  the  base  of  the  neck,  to  furnish  a  smooth  and  well 
inclined  surface  on  which  the  collar  may  rest.  Any  rough- 
ness of  shoulder  and  lack  of  muscle  covering  will  furnish 
conditions  favorable  to  sore  shoulders  when  the  collar  is 
worn. 

The  arm  of  the  draft  horse  is  the  comparatively  short, 
wide,  muscular  portion  of  the  forehand  through  which  lies 
in  a  backward,  slanting  position  the  short,  strong  humerus 
bone.  This  part  of  the  forelimb  should  be  a  strong  support 
for  the  shoulder,  extending  well  back  and  close  in  to  the 
body  at  its  rear  part.  This  places  the  leg  sufficiently  under 
the  body  to  give  desirable  position  and  action.  If  the  rear 
end  of  the  arm  lies  out  from  the  body  the  leg  and  foot  will 
turn  inward  to  some  extent,  while  if  placed  too  close  to  the 
body  the  leg  and  foot  turn  somewhat  outward.  Therefore 
the  arm  should  be  so  placed  as  not  to  affect  the  true  placing 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  leg. 

The  forearm  of  the  horse  is  that  portion  of  the  leg 
between  the  arm  and  knee,  the  muscles  being  laid  over  the 
radius  and  ulna,  the  latter  extending  high  behind,  the  top 


78 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


being  the  point  of  the  elbow.  It  is  important  that  the  fore- 
arm be  long  and  strongly  muscled.  This  portion  of  the 
front  leg  varies,  however,  less  in  length  than  in  width  and 
muscle  covering.  On  the  upper  part  the  muscles  should 
be  comparatively  thick  and  wide,  suggestive  of  power.  The 
forearm  from  a  side  view  gradually  narrows,  the  lower 
portion  taking  on  a  flat,  hard,  muscular  appearance.  Viewed 
from  in  front,  the  upper  third  of  the  forearm  should  ap- 
pear thick  and  somewhat  rounded  out,  tapering  consider- 
ably just  above  the  knee.  Any  narrowness  and  lack  of 
muscling  in  the  upper  forearm  is  evidence  of  weak  forma- 
tion. The  direction  of  the  forearm  should  be  straight,  to 
assure  trueness  of  stride,  as  suggested  in  the  preceding 
paragraph. 

The  knee  of  the  horse  should  be  broad  from  a  front 

view  and  deep  or  wide  as 
viewed  from  one  side,  and 
should  show  a  straight  direc- 
tion. As  viewed  from  in 
front  the  knee  is  very  slight- 
ly drawn  in  in  its  lower 
half.  From  a  side  view  the 
front  of  the  knee  is  nearly 
flat  when  most  perfectly  de- 
veloped, but  as  a  whole  nar- 
rows more  or  less  in  its  lower 
part,  often  considerably  so. 
The  more  the  knee  tapers  in 
below,  the  less  support  will 
it  have  at  this  point,  and  the 
weaker  will  be  the  conforma- 
tion. The  tendon  at  the 
back  part  of  the  knee  should 
contribute  to  give  depth  and 
strength.  What  is  known 
as  "calf  knee"  is  a  posi- 

Fig.  38. — "Knee-sprung  or  over  at        ,.         .      '      .  ,    Jl 

the  knees."  tion  in  which  the  knee  from 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSKS   OF    HOHSKS  79 

a  side  view  inclines  slightly  inward,  with  the  cannon 
below  rather  inclining  forward,  in  which  case  the 
weight  is  supported  by  the  back  of  the  foot.  Often 
one  sees  horses  in  which  the  knees  incline  forward, 
with  the  leg  below  inclining  backward,  giving  a  po- 
sition known  as  "knee-sprung"  or  over  at  the  knees,  with 
the  weight  carried  more  toward  the  toe.  The  calf  knee  is 
due  to  a  weakness  of  the  tendons  and  ligaments  of  the  knee, 
while  the  knee-sprung  condition  is  usually  due  to  a  con- 
traction of  the  back  tendons  associated  with  work  and  age. 
A  knee-sprung  horse  tires  and  stumbles  easily,  therefore 
any  narrow  or  tied-in  appearance  of  the  knee  is  indicative 
of  weakness  and  inferior  movement.  Knees  are  sometimes 
swelled  or  enlarged  but  are  not  often  fleshy.  The  judge 
should  be  exacting  as  to  the  clean,  well-defined,  healthy 
condition  of  knee. 

The  cannon  of  the  horse  should  be  short,  wide,  flat  and 
lean,  the  tendons  showing  well  behind.  Emphasis  is  usually 
placed  on  a  short  cannon,  for  here  shortness  of  leg  is  se- 
cured, and  this  is  desirable,  bringing  the  weight  of  the 
horse  as  close  to  the  ground  as  is  consistent  with  maximum 
power.  The  cannon  should  be  wide  so  as  to  give  a  strong 
support  to  the  knee  above.  If  it  is  not  wide  but  shows  a 
narrow  or  tied-in  appearance  we  have  positive  evidence 
of  weakness.  A  long  cannon,  much  tied-in,  indicates  an 
extremely  weak,  poor  leg.  Hayes  states  8  that ' '  a  thorough- 
ly sound  rule,  which  is  borne  out  in  practice  as  well  as  by 
theory,  is  to  judge  the  wear-resisting  power  of  a  foreleg  by 
the  direction  which  the  back  tendons  make  with  the  cannon 
bone,  and  not  by  its  measurement  below  the  knee,  which  is 
worthless,  unless  the  measurement  round  the  fetlock  is 
taken  into  consideration.  It  is  important  to  note  the  dif- 
ference between  a  leg  which  is  light  below  the  knee,  and 
one  which  is  tied-in  below  the  knee.  The  latter  is  always 
objectionable ;  the  former  only  when  the  body  is  too  heavy 
for  the  forelegs."  Referring  to  this  tied-in  condition, 

8  Points  of  the  Horse,  3d  ed.,   1904,  p.  286. 


80 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


Youatt  says 9  t '  every  horseman  recognizes  it  as  a  most 
serious  defect.  It  is  scarcely  compatible  with  speed,  and 
most  assuredly  not  with  continuance.  Such  a  horse  cannot 
be  ridden  far  and  fast  without  serious  sprain  of  the  back 
sinews.  The  reason  is  plain.  The  pressure  of  the  ring  (a 

ligament  ring  by 
which  the  tendons 
are  held  in  place) 
will  produce  a  de- 
gree of  friction  in- 
consistent with  the 
free  action  of  the 
tendons ;  more  force 
must  therefore  be 
exerted  in  every 
act  of  progression ; 
and  although  the 
muscles  are  power- 
ful, and  sufficiently 
so  for  every  ordi- 
nary purpose,  the 
repetition  of  this  extra  exertion  will  tire  and  strain 

them A  more  serious  evil  however,  remains  to  be 

stated.  "When  the  back  sinews,  or  tendons,  are  thus  tied 
down,  they  are  placed  in  an  oblique  direction,  in  which  the 
power  of  the  muscles  is  exerted  with  greater  disadvantage. ' ' 
The  cannon  should  be  flat  and  smooth,  for  any  roughness 
of  the  bone  also  indicates  a  defective  condition.  Hardness 
of  bone  is  especially  sought  here,  for  not  only  are  the  meta- 
carpal  bones  of  the  cannon  extremely  hard  and  strong,  but 
the  hardness,  smoothness  and  size  of  the  cannon  serves  as 
an  index  of  the  general  quality  and  condition  of  the  entire 
skeleton.  The  tendons  which  lie  back  of  the  bone  should 
be  clearly  denned  and  be  strongly  cord-like  and  should  lie 
quite  parallel  with  the  bone  in  front.  The  two  back  ten- 
dons may  be  seen  and  felt  without  difficulty  for  they  are 
hard  and  cord-like  in  character,  and  should  appear  more 


Fig.  39. — "The  cannon  should  be  flat 
and  smooth." 


8  The  Horse,   1843,   New  York  edition,   n.d.,   p.  2( 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES  81 

or  less  separated.  However,  they  are  less  conspicuous  on 
the  draft  horse  than  on  the  more  refined  racer.  The  so- 
called  flatness  of  the  cannon  is  due  to  these  back  tendons 
rather  than  to  the  presence  of  a  flat  bone.  In  fact  the  bone 
proper  of  the  cannon  is  not  flat  at  all,  the  main  shaft  being 
semi-cylindrical  with  a  broad,  round  edge  in  front.  Rough- 
ness of  the  cannon,  especially  on  the  inner  side,  is  often  to 
be  noted,  due  to  small  bony  ridges  or  points  known  as 
'  *  splints. ' '  "While  a  smooth  bone  is  desirable,  a  small,  hard 
elevation  or  two  below  the  skin  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
cMiuion  is  not  usually  important,  these  being  in  fact  re- 
mains of  splint  bones  inherited  from  the  prehistoric  horse 
rather  than  evidences  of  diseased  bone. 

The  fetlock  of  the  horse  is  the  joint  connected  with  the 
lower  end  of  the  cannon.  It  is  also  often  termed  the  pastern 
joint.  The  fetlock  should  be  wide,  thick,  flne  and  well  di- 
rected. Width  is  to  be  noted  from  a  side  view,  and  a  wide 
fetlock  gives  evidence  of  a  strong  tendon  and  ligament  at- 
tachment on  the  back  side  of  this  joint.  Thickness  is  im- 
portant to  allow  for  plenty  of  space  for  tendon  and  liga- 
ment to  pass  over  the  joint.  A  thin  skin  over  the  fetlock 
shows  quality  and  indicates  a  good  condition  of  the  joint. 
Any  thick  or  puffy  appearance  is  undesirable.  Scratches 
and  sores  often  occur  on  the  fetlock,  more  especially  when 
the  skin  is  thick  or  fleshy.  The  fetlock  of  the  draft  horse, 
however,  is  covered  with  thicker  skin  and  longer,  heavier 
hair  than  that  of  the  light  horse.  The  hair  in  this  case  is  an 
important  index  of  quality  of  bone.  The  direction  of  the 
fetlock  should  be  straight,  with  no  twist  or  turn  to  either 
side,  if  it  is  to  be  associated  with  correct  position. 

The  pastern  of  the  horse,  the  connecting  link  between 
fetlock  and  foot,  in  the  draft  horse  should  be  of  moderate 
length,  and  strongly  carried  at  an  angle  of  about  45  de- 
grees. The  slope  of  the  pastern  is  of  special  significance, 
for  it  relieves  concussion  in  the  course  of  action,  and  best 
distributes  the  force  of  the  blow.  "When  the  foot  hits  the 
ground,  as  a  rule  the  frog  or  center  of  the  hoof  and  the 
back  part  is  struck  first,  after  which  the  front  part  of  the 


82 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


foot  laps  over  to  complete  the  contact.  The  long,  springy 
pastern  permits  a  greater  extension  of  limb,  and  a  placing 
of  the  foot  with  less  concussion.  The  shorter  and  more 
upright  pastern,  gives  a  harder  and  more  stilted  gait  and 
a  greater  tendency  when  in  action,  to  contact  the  toe  before 
the  frog  or  heel.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among 
horsemen  as  to  the  length  of  pastern  desirable  in  the  draft 
horse.  Generally  speaking,  one  of  medium  length  is  re- 
garded as  most  desirable 
for  all  conditions.  The 
Scotch,  however,  prefer  a 
long  pastern.  Dykes,  in  his 
introduction  in  the  Clydes- 
dale Stud  Book  of  Scot- 
land, says : 10  "No  doubt 
the  upright  pastern  suits 
well  the  upright  shoulder 
and  slow  action  of  the 
English  draft  horse,  a  con- 
formation which  can  scarce- 
ly be  called  the  best  for 
any  purpose ;  but  it  will 
not  do  in  the  Clydesdale, 
which  requires  a  pastern  to 
suit  the  formation  of  the 
shoulder,  and  to  confer  the 
necessary  elasticity  to  coun- 
teract the  concussion  caused 
by  his  quick,  firm  step. 

Short,  upright  pasterns  always  get  worse  with  age 
and  feeding,  and  the  action  in  due  course  of  time 
becomes  impeded.  A  horse  with  an  upright  pastern 
has  little  or  no  command  of  his  foot,  and  literally  walks 
as  on  a  crutch ;  and  if  he  has  no  power  of  his  foot,  he  can- 
not have  much  of  his  shoulder."  Mr.  Alex.  Galbraith,  long 
intimately  identified  with  the  draft  horse  industry  in 

10  Vol.  I.,  2d  ed.,  1884,  p.  51. 


Fig.  40. — "The  long,  springy  pastern 
permits  a  greater  extension  of  limb." 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES  OF   HORSES  83 

Scotland  and  America,  and  a  recognized  authority  on  the 
Clydesdale,  says  n  that  the  pasterns  of  the  Clydesdale  are 
longer  and  much  more  oblique  than  in  the  other  breeds,  and 
that  the  statement  " pasterns  like  a  Clydesdale/'  is  the 
most  complimentary  allusion  that  can  be  made  to  the  under- 
pinning of  any  other  kind  of  horse.  Hayes  says, 12  that 
"we  may  accept  as  an  axiom,  the  statement  that  the  harder 
the  ground  and  the  faster  the  work,  the  more  sloping 
should  the  pasterns  be,  in  order  to  save  the  legs  from  inju- 
rious effects  of  concussion.  If  the  horse  be  required  to 
gallop  over  hard  ground,  the  pasterns  can  hardly  be  too 
oblique  (supposing  of  course,  that  this  condition  has  not 
been  brought  about  by  injury)  ;  provided  always  that  the 
pastern  bones  are  strong."  Without  question  the  farm 
horse  largely  used  on  soft  ground,  does  not  require  the 
sloping  pastern  of  the  draft  horse  on  the  city  pavement, 
for  reasons  already  given.  The  direction  of  the  pastern  is 
generally  given  at  from  40  to  45  degrees,  but  Goubaux  and 
Barriere  state  13  that  60  degrees  is  preferable  for  the  front 
ones,  45  degrees  constituting  a  marked  "low  jointedness." 
Foot  diseases  are  generally  more  common  on  horses  with 
upright  pasterns  than  on  those  of  greater  slope.  The 
pasterns  should  be  straight  in  direction  because  ill-placed 
feet  are,  as  a  rule,  due  to  the  pasterns  directing  in  or  out. 
The  pastern  should  be  smooth,  and  covered  with  fine  skin 
and  hair  as  evidence  of  quality  and  good  condition. 

The  feet  of  the  horse  are  universally  regarded  as  of 
prime  importance,  hence,  the  oft  quoted  saying,  "no  feet, 
no  horse. "  In  general,  the  front  feet  should  be  large, 
round,  of  uniform  size  and  as  viewed  from  in  front  should 
point  straight  forward.  Small  feet  do  not  have  the  neces- 
sary base  of  support  associated  with  draft  weight.  The 
front  feet  are  usually  larger  than  those  behind.  Roundness 
of  outline  of  hoof  is  sought,  although  the  curve  is  some- 

"  American  Clydesdale  Stud  Book,  Vol.  X. 

12  The  Points  of  the  Horse,   3d  ed.,   1904,  p.  291. 

13  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,  2d  ed.,   1904,  p.  304. 


84 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


what  more  marked  on  the  out- 
side of  the  hoof,  the  inner  side 
toward  the  rear  having  a  trifle 
less  curve.  "This  shape,"  says 
Craig,14  "it  will  be  easily  seen, 
not  only  gives  a  strong  hold  on 
the  ground,  but  it  also  decreases 
the  possibility  of  the  inner  edge 
of  the  foot  striking  the  opposite 
leg  or  interfering. ' '  This  round- 
ness of  form  is  to  be  seen  by  ex- 
amining the  feet  from  in  front, 
or  picking  them  up  and  noting 
the  form  from  the  under  side. 
To  raise  the  front  foot,  slide  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  one 
hand  down  alongside  the  can- 
non, pressing  tightly  the  ten- 
dons, at  the  same  time  giving  a 
back  and  upward  pull  with  the 
other  hand,  grasping  the  front  of 
the  fetlock.  Usually  the  horse 
will  raise  the  foot  without  resistance  and  it  then  may  be  held 
for  inspection  by  supporting  it  in  the  hand.  As  viewed  from 
one  side  the  hoofs  should  present  an  angle  of  about  50  de- 
grees from  coronet  to  toe,  having  a  slope  quite  comparable 
with  the  pastern  and  shoulder.  Too  upright  a  hoof  gives  a 
hard  gait  and  tends  to  foot  difficulties.  If  the  hoof  is  too 
long  the  heel  is  thrown  out  of  position,  being  closer  to  the 
ground,  and  is  thus  subjected  to  a  strain  that  causes  weak- 
ness or  injury.  From  a  side  view,  the  length  of  heel  should 
measure  about  one-third  the  length  of  the  front  of  hoof. 
The  exterior  of  the  hoof  should  not  flare  out  too  widely, 
for  the  coronet  or  hoof  head  should  be  round  and  of  good 
size  in  comparison  with  the  bottom  of  the  foot.  Such  a 
foot  suffers  less  from  foot  trouble  than  one  with  a  small 


Fig.  41.— "The  front  feet 
should  be  large,  round,  of  uni- 
form size,  and  as  viewed  from 
in  front,  should  point  straight 
forward." 


"Judging  Live  Stock,   Gth  ed.,  1904,  p.  40. 


THE  TYPES   AND   CLASSES  OF   HORSES 


85 


or  constricted  hoof  head.  When  the  foot  is  raised  the  under 
side  should  present  a  slight  arch  with  a  well  developed 
frog,  wide  at  its  base,  which  just  rests  on  the  ground  when 
the  foot  drops  to  the  surface.  A  flat  foot  lacks  the  desired 
arch  and  is  not  easily  trimmed  by  the  smith ;  it  also  bears 
too  much  concussion  at  the  low  set  heel.  The  frog  consists 
of  elastic,  fibrous  material  and  serves  as  an  important 
buffer  and  protection  against  injury  to  sensitive  tissues 
and  nerves  within  the  foot  and  especially  just  above  the 
frog.  A  great  weight  rests  on  the  bones  and  membranes 
within  the  hoof,  and  in  a  measure  these  are  protected  by 
a  slight  arch  of  sole  and  well  developed  frog.  For  this 
reason  the  blacksmith  should  never  disturb  the  frog,  ex- 


Fig.  42. — "Usually  the  horse  will  raise  the  foot  without  resistance." 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


Fig.  43. — "As  viewed  from  one  side  the  hoofs 
should  present  an  angle  of  about  50  degrees 
from  coronet  to  toe." 


away,  and  had  its  proper  con- 
tact with  the  pavement.  The 
bars  of  the  foot,  which,  brace- 
like,  serve  to  keep  the  heel 
well  spread,  should  extend 
from  the  corners  of  the  heel, 
and  lie  parallel  with  the  frog, 
in  well  developed  ridges. 
The  hoof  that  lacks  bars  often- 
times shows  a  narrow  or  con- 
tracted heel.  The  bars  should 
never  be  cut  away  by  the 
smith.  The  horn  of  which 
the  hoof  is  composed,  should 
be  very  hard  and  free  from 
all  seams  or  cracks.  The  hoof 
consists  of  a  multitude  of 
horny  cells,  closely  packed 
together,  and  its  character 
largely  depends  on  local  con- 
ditions of  keep.  Referring 


cepting  to  trim 
away  loose  fibers 
and  keep  it  in  as 
natural  condition 
as  possible.  In  the 
days  when  the 
Paris  Omnibus 
Company  kept  from 
12,000  to  15,000 
horses  in  their 
stables,  the  horses 
as  a  rule  wore  flat 
shoes  and  especial 
care  was  taken  by 
the  management  to 
see  that  the  frog 
was  not  pared 


Fig.  44. — "A  flat  foot  lacks  the 
desired  arch." 


THE  TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES  87 

to  this,  Hayes  states15  that  "the  horn  of  the  wall, 
sole  and  frog  should  be  thick,  hard  and  tough,  so  as  to 
resist  in  an  efficient  manner  the  effect  of  wear.  Moisture 
has  a  well  marked  softening  and  weakening  influence  on 
the  horn,  and  consequently  affects  the  form  of  the  foot.  "We 
find  that  the  drier  the  climate,  the  stronger  is  the  horn  of 
horses  there  reared,  the  more  upright  the  hoofs,  and 
the  more  concave  are  the  soles.  When  the  horn  of  the  wall 
and  sole  is  weak,  it  cannot  efficiently  support  the  weight 
thrown  on  the  leg,  and  the  foot  will  have  a  tendency  to 
become  flat.  The  feet  of  horses  bred  in  Australia,  for  in- 
stance, are  stronger  than  those  produced  in  England,  ow- 
ing to  the  climate  being  drier.  .  .  .  The  great  trouble 
with  heavy  cart  horses  in  England  is  the  weakness  of  their 
hoofs,  the  horn  of  which,  as  a  rule,  is  no.t  nearly  so  strong 
as  that  of  well  bred  horses ;  although  the  strain  which  falls 
on  it  is  much  greater  than  that  which  tries  the  tenacity  of 
the  horn  of  the  feet  of  saddle  horses  Considering  the 
greater  size  of  the  muscles  and  bones  of  the  draft  animal, 
we  might  expect  the  horn  of  his  hoofs  would  be  proportion- 
ately stronger  than  that  of  the  half  bred.  The  fact  that  it 
is  not  stronger,  is  a  proof  that  English  cart  horses  are  de- 
ficient in  one  of  the  most  important  points  of  usefulness. 
Veterinary  surgeons  in  practice  in  England  and  Scotland 
tell  us  that  the  large  majority  (about  nine-tenths)  of  cart 
horses  which  come  to  them  for  treatment,  are  foot  cases." 
The  horn  of  the  hoof  should  be  free  from  cracks  and  all 
roughness.  A  dark  color  is  quite  generally  preferred,  many 
believing  a  white  hoof  has  less  wearing  resistance  than  a 
dark  one.  There  is  really  little  evidence  on  that  point. 
Judges  should  examine  the  feet  with  great  care,  and  dis- 
criminate without  hesitation  where  pronounced  defects 
occur. 

The  position  of  the  front  legs  and  feet  should  be  such 
as  to  result  in  the  least  effort  when  in  motion,  to  secure 
maximum  results  from  a  draft  point  of  view.  The  subject 

16  Points  of  the  Horse,   London,   3d  ed.,    1904,   p.   299. 


88 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  45. — "A  plumb  line  dropped  from  the 
point  of  the  shoulder." 


of  the  attitudes  of 
the  limbs  has  re- 
ceived much  study, 
and  authorities 
seem  quite  agreed 
on  what  these 
should  be.  "When 
standing  at  atten- 
t  i  o  n,  in  perfect 
pose,  the  profile  of 
the  face  will  be  at 
right  angles  with 
the  top  of  the  neck, 
and  the  weight  will 
be  equally  distrib- 
uted on  all  four 
limbs.  To  ascer- 
tain if  the  limbs  are  in  correct  position  from  a  front 
point  of  view,  a  plumb  line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the 
shoulder  should  divide  the  leg  through  knee,  cannon,  pas- 
tern and  foot  into  two  lateral  halves.  As  a  rule,  the  fore- 
arms slope  in  very  slightly  while  the  cannons  stand  paral- 
lel. From  a  side  , . 

view,  a  line 
dropped  from  the 
bony  projection  on 
the  shoulder  blade 
should  pass 
through  the  cen- 
ter of  the  elbow 
joint  and  meet  the 
ground  at  the  cen- 
ter of  the  foot. 
When  the  horse  is 
viewed  from  in 
front,  and  the 

armpay     fnn       Fig>  46' — "A  line  dropped  from  the  bony  pro- 
jection of  the  shoulder  blade." 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF    HORSES 


8'J 


dose,  the  horse  is  ''knocked  kneed";  if  too  widely 
separated  he  is  "bow  legged"  or  "bow  kneed";  if  the 
toes  turn  out  he  is  "toe  wide"  or  "base  narrow,"  or 
"splay  footed/',  and  if  the  toes 
turn  in  he  is  "toe  narrow,"  or 
"base  wide,"  or  "pigeon-toed." 
A  crooked  leg  is  evidence  of  weak- 
ness or  defective  gait.  A  splay 
footed  horse  interferes,  and  a  pigeon- 
toed  one  "paddles"  or  "wings." 
The  terms  calf-kneed  and  knee- 
sprung  have  already  been  explained 
(page  78).  These  various  deficien- 
cies of  leg  position  are  easily  noticed, 
and  should  not  be  ignored  by  the 
judge.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  walk  is  the  com- 
mon gait  of  the  draft  horse,  so  that 
the  same  importance  is  not  to  be  at- 
tached to  the  position  of  leg  as 
in  the  case  of  the  speed  horse.  There 
is  much  less  likelihood  of  interfer- 
ence from  a  draft  horse,  with  his 


Fig.  47. — "If  the  toes 
turn  in  he  is  toe  narrow, 
or  base  wide,  or  pigeon- 
toed." 


slow  movement,  than  from  a  trotter, 

even  admitting  the  undesirability  of 

the  position  of  leg  in  either  case.    This  the  judge  must 

take  into  consideration. 

The  body  of  the  draft  horse  is  a  very  important  factor 
for  we  must  largely  look  to  this  portion  of  the  whole  for 
the  great  weight  desired.  Therefore  as  he  views  the  draft 
horse  the  judge  must  be  impressed  in  suitable  degree  with 
his  massive  size  as  expressed  in  the  body,  otherwise  the 
animal  lacks  in  draft  character.  This  massiveness  is  es- 
sential for  the  necessary  weight  to  be  thrown  forward  in 
the  collar  when  work  is  to  be  done. 

The  withers  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  well  defined 
and  muscular.  As  has  already  been  explained,  the  withers 


90  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

are  for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles  and  suspensory  liga- 
ments connecting  the  head  and  neck.  Other  muscles  also 
connect  withers  and  shoulders  and  back.  Withers  of  promi- 
nence, extending  well  into  the  back,  therefore  have  a  more 
powerful  muscular  connection  than  they  would  have  other- 
wise. In  the  case  of  the  draft  horse  it  is  important  that  the 
withers  be  thick  and  muscular  rather  than  thin.  If  the 
shoulders  are  powerful  and  fittingly  muscled,  then  the 
withers  will  be  in  keeping. 

The  chest  of  the  draft  horse  is  that  portion  of  the  body 
that  lies  between  and  immediately  back  of  the  shoulders, 
between  the  withers  and  lower  line  of  body.  The  breast 
is  that  portion  of  the  body  which  lies  directly  in  front  of 
the  chest,  and  below  the  neck.  The  chest  should  be  deep, 
wide,  low  and  of  large  girth.  Such  a  conformation  indi- 
cates a  strong  constitution  with  ample  space  for  the  vital 
organs;  it  also  is  naturally  associated  with  heavy  weight. 
With  the  horse  depth  of  chest  is  really  more  important  than 
thickness,  although  these  two  features  are  associated.  The 
depth  through  the  chest  should  be  somewhat  greater  than 
the  distance  from  the  under  side  of  this  part  to  the  level  of 
the  feet.  While  thickness  is  desirable,  horsemen  do  not 
wish  too  wide  a  horse,  at  least  not  like  a  fat  steer,  as  fat 
horses  usually  have  inferior  action,  going  too  wide,  the  legs 
being  too  far  apart  for  the  most  powerful  draft.  Hayes 
believes16  there  is  no  essential  difference  in  the  relative 
thickness  of  chest  in  horses  of  the  same  depth.  He  at- 
tributes the  difference  in  thickness  to  the  pectoral  muscles 
which  lie  between  the  humerus  and  the  chest,  and  states 
that  "it  is  no  rare  occurrence  to  see  horses  that  have  been 
once  broad  chested,  become  narrow  in  front  when  old  and 
worn  out."  He,  however,  agrees  to  the  necessity  of  thick- 
ness of  chest  with  the  draft  horse,  on  account  of  his  requir- 
ing massive  muscles.  In  discussing  breast  conformation, 
Goubaux  and  Barriere  comment  as  follows:17  "Draft 

16  The  Points  of  the  Horse,  3d  ed.,  1904,  p.  244. 

17  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,  2d  ed.,   1P04,  p.  146. 


THE   TYPES   AND  CLASSES   OF   HORSES  91 

horses  can,  without  being  defective,  be  very  open  in  front. 
The  lateral  oscillations  of  the  center  of  gravity,  being  only 
prejudicial  to  velocity,  do  not  diminish  the  energy  of  his 
efforts.  His  power  depends  upon  his  mass,  and  he  demands, 
therefore,  firm  and  voluminous  muscles.  From  this  point  of 
view  we  may  regard  a  wide  breast  as  a  point  of  great  merit, 
because  it  gives  to  the  trunk  the  volume  which  is  necessary 
in  order  to  overcome  easily,  but  slowly,  heavy  resistance." 
The  prevailing  opinion  among  American  horsemen,  how- 
ever, is  that  the  chest  may  be  too  thick,  especially  if  the  legs 
are  attached  wide  on  the  corners  of  the  body.  Such  con- 
formation places  the  legs  too  wide  apart  and  results  in  a 
weaker  placement  of  the  limbs  than  is  consistent  with  maxi- 
mum draft  and  the  most  uniform  action.  The  depth  of 
chest  should  be  somewhat  greater  than  the  distance  from  its 
floor  to  the  foot  surface,  for  this  means  shortness  of  leg  and 
the  location  of  the  center  of  gravity  at  the  most  desirable 
point.  The  breast  should  extend  forward  in  distinctive  de- 
gree, having  some  prominence  and  width  between  the 
shoulder  points. 

The  back  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  short,  broad  and 
strongly  supported.  A  short  back  is  associated  with  the 
closeness  of  the  ribs  that  is  related  to  strong  muscular  de- 
velopment. There  can  be  no  likelihood  of  the  back  being 
too  broad.  The  back  should  be  strongly  supported,  that  is 
the  muscles  and  ligaments  along  the  spine  should  be  thick, 
firm  and  strong,  and  hold  the  back  well  in  place.  The  back 
of  the  horse  naturally  inclines  upwards  toward  the  croup, 
not  being  level.  With  age  the  ligaments  and  muscles  often 
relax  and  the  back  sags  materially,  indicating  weakness.  A 
distinctive  arching  of  the  back  at  the  loins  goes  by  the  name 
of  "roach  back,"  and  is  not  a  desirable  development.  In 
the  case  of  the  draft  horse,  when  the  back  is  in  good  condi- 
tion and  wide,  a  ridge  of  muscle  may  often  be  seen  along 
each  side  of  the  backbone. 

The  loin  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  short,  wide  and 
strongly  muscled.  This  portion  of  the  back,  for  that  is 


92 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


really  what  it  is,  should  be  as  short  and  wide  as  possible, 
with  a  thick  layer  of  firm  muscle  indicating  great  strength. 
The  length  of  loin  is  measured  from  the  side,  or  the  dis- 

t  a  11  c  e  from  the 
front  of  the  hip  to 
the  last  rib,  this 
space  being  known 
as  the  coupling. 
The  loin  naturally 
slopes  off  to  some 
extent  from  each 
side  of  the  back 
bone,  but  for  the 
most  powerful  de- 
velopment, this 
part  should  be  very 
broad  and  with 
slight  slope.  A 
sharp  crest  at  the 
loins  is  a  sign  of 

weakness.  The  kidneys  lie  beneath  the  loin,  and  horse- 
men often  pinch  the  loin  along  the  center,  to  note  the  effect 
on  the  horse.  If  the  animal  flinches  slightly,  it  is  assumed 
the  physical  condition  here  is  good,  but  if  the  animal  resists 
in  a  notable  degree,  it  may  indicate  extreme  nervousness, 
or  some  unhealthy  condition.  A  well  muscled  loin  is  usually 
regarded  as  an  evidence  of  soundness  at  this  point.  In  the 
case  of  the  draft  horse  in  good  condition,  the  ridge  of 
muscle  along  each  side  of  the  spine  is  continued  the  length 
of  the  loin. 

The  ribs  of  the  horse  should  be  long,  well  sprung,  and 
close  together.  Hayes  discusses  at  some  length  the  most  de- 
sirable features  in  the  ribbing 18  and  emphasizes  three 
things,  viz.:  convexity  (roundness)  behind  the  shoulders, 
length,  and  inclination  to  the  rear.  In  this  discussion 

"The  Points  of  the  Horse,  3d  ed.,   1904,  p.  228. 


Fig.  48. — "This  space  being  known  as  the 
coupling." 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF    HORSKS  93 

Hayes  takes  issue  with  Youatt,  who  published  a  fallacy J9 
concerning  the  conformation  of  the  ribs  that  has  been  re- 
peated by  many  English  writers,  namely,  that  the  circular 
chest  could  not  expand,  but  every  change  of  form  would  be 
a  diminution  of  capacity.  Hayes  states  that  "this  state- 
ment seems  to  be  based  on  the  supposition  that  the  chest 
expands  and  contracts  by  the  ribs  opening  and  closing  in  a 
direction  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  body.  Instead 
of  this  being  the  case,  the  difference  in  capacity  of  the  chest 
is  due  to  the  fact  of  the  ribs,  which  are  inclined  to  the  rear, 
turning  round  towards  the  front  on  their  upper  and  lower 
ends,  as  on  pivots,  when  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs,  and 
then  revolving  back  again  when  the  air  is  expelled  from 
them.  We  may  here  note  that  the  air  is  expelled  from  the 
lungs  by  the  elastic  recoil  of  the  ribs,  which  takes  place  the 
moment  the  muscles  which  drew  the  ribs  forward  become 
relaxed.  Youatt 's  statement  is  altogether  incorrect;  for 
the  rounder  the  ribs  are,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
greater  will  be  the  difference  between  the  chest  capacity 
when  the  lungs  are  full,  and  its  capacity  when  they  are 
comparatively  empty."  The  feature  of  good  length  applies 
rather  to  rotundity  of  fore  rib,  than  to  the  distance  between 
the  respective  ends,  although  the  ribs  far  back  should  be  as 
long  and  directed  as  much  outward  as  possible,  so  as  to 
afford  a  broad  attachment  to  the  diaphragm.  "If  the  last 
rib  be  short,  flat  and  but  little  inclined  to  the  rear,  the 
animal  will  be  'slack  in  the  loins'  and  certainly  will  not 
have  as  good  breathing  power  as  he  would  if  that  rib  was 
long,  l springing'  well  out  from  the  side,  and  inclined  so 
much  to  the  rear  that  there  would  be  space  only  for  the 
ends  of  two  or  three  fingers  between  it  and  the  point  of  the 
hip."  In  the  case  of  the  draft  horse,  the  greater  the  arch 
and  length  of  rib,  the  more  the  space  available  for  the  de- 
velopment of  muscles  and  weight  so  significant  a  feature 
of  this  type  of  animal.  We  get  neither  draft  form  nor 
weight  in  the  horse  with  flat,  short  rib  and  wide  coupling. 

"The  Horse.     By  William  Youatt,  London,  1843,  New  York  edition,  p.  169. 


94  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

The  arch  of  rib  is  best  noted  from  in  front  or  behind,  while 
its  length  and  the  coupling  must  be  studied  from  the  side. 

The  flanks  of  the  horse  should  be  low  and  full,  showing 
a  low  underline.  If  the  fore  ribs  are  well  sprung,  and  the 
back  ones  are  long  and  well  carried  out,  as  set  forth  above, 
then  the  flanks  will  be  full  and  the  under  line  carried  rela- 
tively low.  The  more  nearly  the  line  between  front  and 
hind  flank  parallels  the  foot  surface,  the  greater  will  be  the 
digestive  capacity  of  the  horse.  Further,  low,  full  develop- 
ment of  flank  with  the  draft  horse  usually  accompanies 
the  heavier  weight.  Hayes  refers  to  the  "hollow  of  the 
flank,"  which  he  includes  between  the  loins,  point  of  hip 
and  the  end  of  last  back  rib.  This  space,  he  states,  should 
be  as  small  as  possible.  If  it  is  hollowed  out  it  indicates 
bad  health,  weak  constitution  or  being  out  of  condition. 
"When  the  hind  flank  is  cut  up  high,  such  a  horse  is  some- 
times called  "wasp  waisted,"  or  "tucked  up/'  and  is  gen- 
erally considered  as  lacking  in  endurance. 

The  hindquarters  of  the  horse  are  the  great  source  of 
driving  power,  for  propulsion  by  the  hind  legs  occurs 
through  the  hip  joint  and  pelvis.  Care  should  be  taken  in 
examining  the  hindquarters  of  strange  horses,  on  account 
of  the  liability  of  kicking.  It  is  desirable  first  to  survey  the 
hindquarters  at  a  safe  distance,  such  as  ten  feet  from  the 
side  or  rear.  It  will  be  necessary  to  inspect  the  limbs  with 
care  and  this  usually  involves  some  handling.  In  this  case, 
the  horse  should  be  approached  from  the  head  or  front 
quarter.  The  word  "whoa !"  may  be  sharply  spoken,  after 
which  the  hand  may  be  passed  lightly  along  the  back,  and 
then  over  the  croup  and  down  the  thigh  and  gaskin  to  the 
hock  and  below  if  desired. 

The  hips  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  wide,  but  in  har- 
mony with  general  body  proportions,  and  smooth  and 
heavily  muscled.  The  most  power  may  be  expected,  other 
things  being  equal,  from  a  horse  that  is  heavily  muscled 
over  the  hips.  Rough  or  bare  hips  are  evidences  of  weak- 
ness. Horses  that  show  extreme  width  between  the  hips, 
vr;th  more  or  less  roughness,  "generally  stand  with  their 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF    IHWSKS  ().-, 

feet  close  together,"  says  Gonne, 20  while  those  that  are 
wider  through  the  barrel  than  between  the  hips,  "generally 
stand  with  their  feet  wide  apart,"  and  are  usually  good 
goers.  Inasmuch  as  great  strength  is  the  desired  feature 
of  the  draft  horse,  then  the  heavily  muscled,  well  placed  hip 
is  logically  connected  with  powerful  muscling  below.  Horses 
in  thin  flesh  may  show  considerable  prominence  of  hips  that 
feeding  might  cover  and  change  in  a  striking  manner. 
Therefore  the  condition  may  be  considered  as  an  important 
factor  in  the  smoothness  and  covering  of  hips. 


Fig.  49. — "We  find  much  difference  in  the  slope  of  the  croup  in 
draft  horses." 

The  croup  of  the  draft  horse  represents  a  great  and 
powerful  combination  of  muscles,  extending  from  the  hips 
back  to  the  end  of  the  pelvis.  To  secure  the  most  complete 
muscular  development  the  croup  must  be  long,  as  seen  from 
one  side,  wide  as  viewed  from  behind  and  with  attractive, 
strong,  yet  sloping  arch  from  hips  to  setting  on  of  tail.  We 

80  Hints  on  the  Horse.     Capt.  C.  M.  Gonne,  London,  1906,  p.  44. 


96  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

find  much  difference  in  the  slope  of  the  croup  in  draft 
horses.  A  steep  croup  is  very  common,  especially  in  those 
coming-  from  continental  Europe.  This  steepness,  which 
is  seen  best  from  a  side  view,  is  not  looked  on  with  favor  by 
the  most  discriminating  horsemen.  The  horse  with  steep, 
short  croup  lacks  not  only  beauty  of  outline,  but  has  less 
length  and  thickness  of  muscle  than  does  the  horse  with  a 
neatly  arched,  long  conformation.  This  feature  the  judge 
should  emphasize,  keeping  in  mind  that  the  movement  of 
the  load  is  directly  connected  with  the  extension  of  the  hip 
joint  through  the  use  of  long,  thick  muscles  at  croup  and 
thigh.  In  the  opinion  of  some,  a  steep  croup  is  often  re- 
lated to  a  weak  coupling  and  crooked  hind  legs.  Hayes 
notes 21  that  the  upper  line  of  the  croup,  from  the  loins  to 
root  of  tail,  should  remain  convex,  a  condition  which  is 
more  or  less  regular,  "caused  by  the  prominence  of  the 
inner  angle  of  the  pelvis ;  by  the  action  of  the  muscles 
which  flex  the  back,  and  by  the  strength  of  the  ligaments 
which  preserve  the  stability  of  this  arch.  We  may  note  how 
relaxation  of  these  muscles  will  affect  this  state  of  convexity 
if  we  pinch  the  loins  of  a  horse,  so  as  to  make  him  crouch, 
which  he  does  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  that  lie 
on  the  top  of  the  loins.  When  he  crouches  in  this  manner, 
the  upper  line  of  the  croup  will  tend  to  become  straight. 
Hence  we  may  accept  the  conclusion,  wrhich  is  freely  borne 
out  in  practice,  that  undue  straightness  of  the  upper  line 
of  the  croup  indicates  weakness  of  the  part," 

As  viewed  from  the  rear  the  croup  should  appear  not 
only  wide  but  with  a  level  tendency,  rather  than  falling 
sharply  away  on  each  side,  as  characterizes  the  narrow 
croup.  When  in  high  condition,  draft  horses  show  a  well 
denned  groove  above  the  spine,  which  divides  the  croup 
into  two  equal  parts.  From  a  rear  view  the  croup  on  each 
side  of  this  groove  should  arch  with  a  wide  yet  not  high 
curve,  showing  a  broad,  strong  conformation  rather  than 
a  sharpness,  that  resembles  the  peaked  roof  of  a  house. 

21  The  Points  of  the  Horse,  3d  ed.,  1904,  p.  254. 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES  97 


.  HO. — '"The  hair  of  the  tail  should  be  reasonably  fine,  and  the  brush 
should  be  thick  and  long." 


The  tail  of  the  horse  has  its  greatest  use  as  a  medium 
for  brushing  off  flies.  Consequently  it  should  have  good 
length  to  serve  its  purpose.  Docking,  which  is  more  es- 
pecially practiced  in  Europe,  is  the  cutting  off  of  a  portion 
of  the  fleshy  part  or  the  dock.  This  is  a  cruel  practice,  and 
is  prohibited  by  law  in  the  United  States.  "Without  a  well 
developed  dock  and  brush,  the  horse  has  no  means  of  pro- 
tection from  the  bites  of  countless  flies.  The  dock  should 
be  comparatively  short  and  muscular,  and  attached  fairly 
high,  such  an  attachment  usually  being  related  to  a  long, 
well  carried  croup.  A  high  setting  of  the  tail  indicates  a 
comparatively  level  sacrum,  a  position  associated  with  the 
freest  locomotion.  A  high  carriage  of  tail  also  shows  the 
muscles  of  the  dock  to  be  active  and  strong.  The  hair  of  the 
tail  should  be  reasonably  fine,  and  the  brush  should  be  thick 


^g  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  long.  In  passing  judgment  on  the  tail  the  most  im- 
portant feature  is  that  it  be  attached  high,  as  related  to 
conformation  of  croup. 

The  thigh  of  the  draft  horse  on  its  upper  portion  joins 
the  side  of  the  croup,  and  at  its  lower  end  terminates  in 
front  at  the  stifle  joint.  This  portion  of  the  hind  leg  is 
comparatively  short,  but  should  be  heavily  muscled,  es- 
pecially on  the  inner  side  known  as  the  quarter.  A  rear 
view  of  the  ideal  draft  horse  thigh  shows  a  very  full,  thick 
muscle,  while  the  side  view  gives  a  strongly  rounded  curve 
from  just  below  the  tail  setting  to  the  lower  thigh  or  gas- 
kin.  From  the  stifle  joint  in  front  which  should  be  heavily 
muscled,  to  the  extreme  point  of  the  curve  of  thigh,  there 
should  be  good  proportionate  length.  It  is  important  that 
the  stifle  joint  should  turn  somewhat  outward,  so  as  to 
allow  free  locomotion  without  rubbing  the  belly  too  close. 

The  gaskin  of  the  draft  horse,  also  known  as  the  lower 
thigh,  extends  from  the  stifle  to  the  point  of  the  hock.  This 
part  for  purposes  of  draft  should  be  relatively  shorter  than 


Fig.  51. — "Terminates  in  front  at  the  stifle  joint.' 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES  QQ 

for  speed.  From  a  side  view  the  muscles  should  appear 
wide  and  prominent,  while  from  the  rear  the  outer  part  of 
the  gaskin  should  show  thick,  well  rounded  curves.  The 
inner  part  of  the  lower  thigh  curves  slightly  outward  from 
the  quarter  above.  If  the  upper  thighs  are  thick  in  the 
quarters,  then  the  lower  ones  will  tend  to  curve  outward, 
showing  considerable  arch  between,  a  desirable  condition  if 
the  lower  parts  are  not  too  widely  separated,  otherwise  ease 
of  locomotion  would  be  affected.  Commenting  on  this  part 
of  the  thigh,  Youatt  says:22  "In  proportion  to  the  length 
of  the  muscle  is  the  degree  of  contraction  of  which  it  is 
capable;  and  also  in  proportion  to  the  contraction  of  the 
muscle  is  the  extent  of  motion  in  the  limb;  but  it  is  still 
more  necessary  that  this  part  of  the  thigh  should  have  con- 
siderable muscle,  in  order  that  strength  may  be  added  to 
such  extent  or  compass  of  motion.  Much  endurance  would 
not  be  expected  of  a  horse  with  a  thin  arm.  A  horse  with 
thin  and  lanky  thighs  will  not  possess  the  strength  which 
considerable  exertion  would  sometimes  require. ' '  Width  of 
gaskin  is  highly  important  for  either  speed  or  strength,  and 
this  can  only  be  secured  by  the  os  calcis  or  bone  topping 
the  hock  having  ample  length. 

The  hock  of  the  draft  horse  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  important  joints  in  the  body.  As  expressed  by  Gou- 
baux  and  Barriere,23  "functionally,  it  is,  more  than  any 
other,  a  region  of  dispersion  of  concussion  as  well  as  of 
propulsion.  It  is  upon  this  region  that  the  efforts  of  the 
extensor  muscles  which  propel  the  body  are  concentrated; 
it  is  on  this  point  that  the  reactions  of  locomotion  bear  at 
the  moment  when  the  body,  moving  with  great  velocity, 
and  projected  forward,  strikes  the  ground;  finally,  this  is 
the  region,  on  which,  in  the  act  of  rearing,  all  the  weight 
of  the  body  presses  down  with  such  great  force."  As  a 
general  description  we  may  say  that  the  hock  should  be 

22  The  Horse.      William  Youatt,   1843,  p.  283. 

215  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse.  Translated  by  S.  J.  J.  Harger,  2d  ed.,  1904, 
p.  253. 


100 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


straight,  wide,  deep,  clean- 
cut,  its  point  being  promi- 
nent, and  the  joint  as  a 
whole  well  supported  by  a 
wide  cannon  below.  The 
hock  is  not  absolutely 
straight,  because  in  the  leg 
of  correct  form,  the  hock 
faces  out  slightly;  were  this 
not  so,  the  leg  when  in  mo- 
tion would  not  clear  the  ab- 
domen. The  leg  is  frequent- 
ly cow-hocked,  facing  widely 
outward,  with  the  point  di- 
rected inward,  thus  giving 
an  unattractive  position,  and 
frequently  is  an  evidence 
with  the  draft  horse  of  a 
be  thigh  lacking  in  muscle.  If 
the  front  of  the  hock  faces 
inward  th'e  point  directs  out- 
ward, giving  a  bow-legged,  weak  position,  while  the  leg 
in  its  forward  movement  presses  the  belly  enough 
to  obstruct  freedom  of  motion.  Goubaux  and  Barriere, 
commenting  on  the  bow-legged  hock,24  state  that  it  is 
due,  ordinarily,  to  the  width  of  the  thigh  and  the  croup, 
as  well  as  to  the  development  of  the  muscles,  and  that  there 
is  nothing  very  unfortunate  in  this,  especially  as  applied 
to  heavy  draft  horses  and  colts.  As  a  matter  of  action,  the 
cow-hocked  horse  is  the  easiest  mover.  The  hock  sometimes 
extends  too  much  forward  in  its  lower  part,  the  cannon  also 
slanting  more  than  it  should  in  the  same  direction.  This 
results  in  a  slight  curve  to  this  part,  to  which  the  name 
"sickle  hock"  has  been  given.  To  note  the  straightness  of 
hock  and  trueness  of  movement,  the  judge  should  stand  di- 
rectly behind  and  have  the  horse  led  off  in  as  direct  a  line 


Tig.  52. — "The  hock  should 
straight,  Avide,  deep,  clean-cut, 
point  being  prominent." 


its 


24  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,  2d  ed.,  1904,  p.  461. 


THE   TYPES   AND  CLASSES  OF.  HOBOES, 


as  possible  toward  a  given  point.  The  hock  should  be 
wide,  as  viewed  both  from  in  front,  and  one  side,  and  have 
plenty  of  depth.  Such  a  conformation  provides  room  for 
strong  muscles  and  tendons  to  connect  with  this  joint. 
The  hock  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  sharply  denned  in  its 
various  curves,  free  of  all  excess  flesh  or  puffy  condition. 
It  is  a  common  sight  with  horses  in  high  condition  and  lack- 
ing exercise  to  have  a  fullness  of  hock,  or  what  is  often 
termed  "meaty"  hocks.  A  side  view  should  show  this 
joint  hard  and  clean,  notably  hollow  in  its  central  face, 
without  evidence  of  swelling.  The  point  of  the  hock  should 
be  prominent,  broad  and  firm,  and  neatly  turned,  indicat- 
ing a  strong  connection  of  the  back  tendon  in  this  most  im- 
portant joint.  Occasionally  the  point  of  the  hock  will 
appear  puffed  and  fleshy.  This  is  due  to  blows,  and  is 
usually  caused  by  the  horse 
kicking  some  hard  obstacle 
behind,  after  which  the 
points  of  the  hock  swell,  re- 
sulting in  a  "capped"  con- 
dition. This  should  never 
appear  upon  an  uninjured 
horse.  The  lower  part  of 
the  hock,  to  be  of  maximum 
strength,  should  be  wide,  so 
that  where  merging  with  the 
cannon  below,  there  will  be 
no  contraction  in  compari- 
son with  the  cannon  further 
down.  The  hocks  of  the 
draft  horse  are  naturally 
larger  and  more  fleshy  than 
those  of  a  smaller  class,  be- 
ing a  part  of  a  massive  ani- 
mal. If  the  gaskin  is  wide, 
and  the  hock  is  not  tied  in 
below,  the  hock  will  be  rela- 


Fig.  53. — "A  slight  curve  to  this 
part,  to  which  the  name  sickle  hock 
has  been  given."  A  curb  is  also 
to  be  seen  just  below  the  point  of 
the  hock.  (See  page  202.) 


;l$2t  V;i   }        •  ;,S^lX>GING   FARM   ANIMALS 


tively  large.  The  need  of  large  size,  perfect  form 
and  soundness  of  hock,  cannot  be  over  emphasized, 
for  this  joint,  as  already  stated,  is  of  vital  importance 
in  moving  the  load.  The  horse  settles  himself  snugly  into 
his  collar,  flexes  the  hind  legs  —  that  is,  moves  them  forward 
—  and  then  begins  an  extension  or  unfolding  of  the  hock 
joint,  that  finally  results  in  the  extended,  straightened  hind 
leg  from  toe  to  stifle,  and  proportionate  forward  motion  of 
horse  and  load.  Therefore  the  necessity  of  great  freedom 
of  movement  and  power  in  this  joint.  Judges  should  ex- 
amine the  hock  with  much  care  from  rear,  side  and  front. 
A  backward  view  between  the  forelegs  will  enable  one  to 
observe  the  face  of  the  hock  better  than  from  any  other 
position.  But  little  handling  of  the  hock  is  necessary,  the 
eye  detecting  most  of  the  defects  though  the  hands  may 
sometimes  be  used  to  advantage. 

The  hind  cannons  of  the  horse  differ  from  those  in 
front,  in  being  notably  flatter.  The  metatarsal  bone  has 
back  of  it  the  splint  bones,  which  occupy  the  upper  part  of 
the  cannon  on  each  side.  Back  of  the  splints  are  the  ten- 
dons, which  stand  out  conspicuously  on  the  hind  leg,  giv- 
ing much  depth.  This  part  of  the  leg,  aside  from  its  flat- 
ness, should  possess  qualities  similar  to  those  desired  in  the 
front  cannon.  Hayes,  in  an  interesting  discussion  25  of  the 
comparative  length  of  cannon  bone  in  the  hind  leg,  states 
that  the  popular  opinion  that  the  length  from  hock  to  toe 
is  less  than  from  hock  to  stifle  is  probably  based  on  an 
optical  delusion.  This  he  illustrates  by  showing  pictures  of 
two  sets  of  legs,  one  apparently  with  short  and  one  with 
long  cannons.  However,  measurements  by  means  of  di- 
viders, with  the  hock  as  the  center,  showed  about  the  same 
length.  He  ascribes  this  optical  delusion  as  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  hock  in  one  case  is  "straight/'  giving  the  im- 
pression it  is  better  "let  down,"  than  in  the  other  case, 
where  the  hock  is  "bent"  for  "as  the  eye  runs  down  the 
limb,  it  will  not  be  so  abruptly  arrested  by  the  former,  as 

25  The  Points  of  the  Horse,  3d  ed.,  1904,  p.   318. 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES  1Q3 

by  the  latter  kind  of  conformation."  Horsemen  generally 
favor  a  short  cannon  on  the  hind  leg  as  bearing  evidence 
of  having  greater  relative  strength  than  a  long  one,  and 
as  a  medium  for  bringing  the  weight  of  body  closer  to  the 
foot  surface.  Goubaux  and  Barriere26  regard  the  short 
cannon  as  less  heavy,  swinging  more  freely,  unfolding  it- 
self more,  "and  not  necessitating  the  same  elevation  of  the 
member  above  the  ground  to  reach  the  limit  of  its  move- 
ments." It  is  important  to  note  that  the  hind  cannon  of 
the  draft  horse  is  relatively  shorter,  usually,  than  that  on 
the  light  class  of  horse.  The  position  of  the  cannons  should 
be  straight,  at  least  fairly  so.  French  authorities  empha- 
size the  desirability  of  the  hind  cannons  being  perpendicu- 
lar, but  Hayes  states  that  he  has  never  seen  a  horse  with 
vertical  cannons.  The  horse  as  a  rule  carries  his  hind  legs 
so  that  at  best  the  cannons  slope  slightly  forward,  rather 
than  have  a  perpendicular  position.  The  judge  will  hardly 
be  justified  in  discriminating  against  a  cannon  that  has  a 
slight  slope  forward,  if  of  a  uniform  and  desirable  width 
throughout  and  free  of  blemishes. 

The  hind  fetlock,  as  in  the  case  of  the  front  one,  should 
be  wide,  straight  and  strong.  Sometimes  this  joint  projects 
forward  to  an  unnatural  degree,  due  to  the  bones  in  pastern 
and  fetlock  growing  somewhat  out  of  position  thus  produc- 
ing knuckling  or  a  "cocked"  ankle.  Horses  with  rather 
upright  pasterns  are  most  subject  to  this  trouble. 

The  hind  pastern  of  the  draft  horse  usually  closely 
resembles  those  of  the  front  legs,  the  same  characteristics 
being  desired  in  each  case.  However,  the  hind  pastern  as 
a  rule,  is  less  oblique  than  the  one  in  front.  A  slope  of  from 
45  to  50  degrees  is  desirable,  for  reasons  already  given  on 
page  83. 

The  hind  feet  of  the  horse  are  somewhat  smaller  than 
the  front  ones,  and  not  so  round.  This  is  almost  universally 
so.  The  hind  foot  also  shows  more  slope  of  the  hoof,  and 
also  arch  of  sole,  than  does  the  front  hoof.  A  round  hoof 

2(1Tho  Exterior  of  the  Horsn,  2cl  <>d.,   1904,  p.  285. 


104 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


of  ample  size  with  slope  in  harmony  with  that  of  the  front 
foot  and  not  too  high  in  the  sole  or  narrow  at  the  heel  is 
to  be  desired.  A  length  of  heel  equal  to  about  one-third 
the  length  of  the  front  of  hoof  will  usually  be  about  right. 
It  is  noteworthy,  however,  that  the  hind  foot  suffers  com- 
paratively little 
from  disease,  and 
gives  the  horseman 
far  less  concern 
than  does  the  front 
foot.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the 
hind  feet  suffer 
much  less  from 
concussion  and 
hard  work  than  the 
front  ones.  The 
scale  of  points,  in 
recognition  of  this, 
credits  the  perfect 
front  feet  with 
more  points  than 
the  hind.  In  the 
early  days  of  the 
use  of  the  score 
card  in  this  coun- 
try, the  author 
drew  up  a  scale  of 
points  for  draft 

horses,  and  submitted  it  for  criticism  to  a  friend  whose 
business  was  buying  and  selling  horses  on  a  large 
scale,  and  who  was  a  most  capable  judge.  His 
view  of  the  relative  importance  of  front  and  hind  feet  was 
such  that  he  insisted  that  10  points  should  be  credited  ^  the 
front  and  two  to  the  hind  feet.  This  was  the  point  of  vie\ 
of  a  practical  horseman  of  large  experience.  He  argued 
that  essentially  all  the  trouble  with  the  feet  was  located  in 


Fig.  54. — "The  hind  feet  of  the  horse  are 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  front  ones,  and  not 
so  round." 


THE   TYPES   AND  CLASSES   OF   HORSES 


105 


Fig.  55. — "A  plumb-line  dropped  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock." 


front,  yet  a  10  to  2  re- 
lationship would,  by 
many,  be  considered 
extreme.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  the  bone  of  the 
hoof  be  smooth  and 
dense,  indicating  tough 
material  that  will  wear 
well. 

The  correct  attitude 
of  the  hind  leg  of  the 
horse  at  rest  is  to  be 
seen  when  a  plumb-line 
dropped  from  the  point 
of  the  buttock  divides 
the  leg  and  foot  into  two 
lateral  halves.  Or,  when 
viewed  from  the  side, 
this  same  line  touches 

the  point  of  the  hock  and  meets  the  foot  surface  a  short  dis- 
tance back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped  from 
the  hip  joint  should  meet  the  foot  surface  midway  between 
heel  and  toe.  Reference  has  already  been  made  (page  100) 

to    the    attitudes 

i  known    as    cow- 

*  ^  hocked    and    bow- 

•r-y  '5i«liV'  legged.    "When  the 

^*  K^'dl  horse     carries    his 

hind  feet  forward 
of  the  vertical  line 
to  a  marked  de- 
gree, he  is  said  to 
be  "under  him- 
self/' When  this 
is  the  natural  pose, 
it  shortens  the  base 

Fig.  56. — "Meets  the  foot  surface  a  short  ,,  A 

distance  back  of  the  heel."  <>f  Support,  and  re- 


106  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

suits  in  undesirable  fatigue  of  the  muscles,  tendons 
and  ligaments.  Slowness  of  gait  and  forging  are  also 
often  associated  with  this  attitude.  If  his  legs  extend  be- 
hind as  though  stretching,  he  is  said  to  have  a  "camped" 
or  "stretched"  position.  This  attitude  gives  a  long  base 
of  support  with  which  is  associated  a  tendency  to  slip  back- 
ward, bringing  too  much  strain  on  the  front  limbs.  Horses 
that  naturally  camp  also  tend  to  weakness  of  back  and  slow 
action.  Grooms  often  stand  their  horses  when  on  exhibi- 
tion so  that  the  front  feet  are  on  a  slightly  higher  level 
than  the  hind  ones,  which  are  stretched  back  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  detract  from  graceful  and  natural  pose.  One 
is  not  far  wrong  in  stating  that  when  the  legs  come  directly 
down  at  each  corner  of  the  body  without  undue  placement 
of  the  feet  away  from  these  points,  the  legs  are  not  far  out 
of  correct  position.  Judges  note  with  some  care  the  posi- 
tion assumed  by  the  hind  legs,  discriminating  especially 
against  bow-leggedness  and  cocked  ankles.  .Any  extreme 
position  when  at  rest  suggests  inferior  action  when  in  mo- 
tion, and  the  judge  is  justified  in  thus  reasoning. 

The  action  of  the  draft  horse  has  a  practical  application 
related  to  hauling  heavy  loads  and  going  through  neces- 
sarily slow  evolutions.  Large  frame  and  great  weight  will 
not  admit  of  hasty  action  on  the  part  of  the  draft  horse. 

The  walk  of  the  drafter  is  of  prime  importance  because 
it  is  at  this  gait  that  most  of  his  work  is  done.  Therefore, 
the  walk  should  include  three  essential  features,  straight- 
ness,  power,  and  elasticity.  When  led  directly  away  from 
the  judge,  the  horse  should  continue  in  a  straight  line,  his 
body  inclining  neither  to  right  nor  left,  and  the  carriage  of 
each  pair  of  legs  on  the  same  side  of  the  body  in  much  the 
same  vertical  plane.  Draft  horses  tend  to  "paddle"  more 
or  less,  throwing  the  feet  outward  when  in  action.  This  is 
usually  due  to  the  horse  being  pigeon-toed,  but  may  be 
caused  by  improper  shoeing,  or  condition  of  hoof.  ' '  Wing- 
ing" is  an  extreme  degree  of  paddling.  Heavy  horses  also 
tend  to  cross  their  feet  when  in  action,  a  movement  known 


THE  TYPES   AND   CLASSES   OF   HORSES 


107 


as'  'winding, '  'and  very  undesirable.  An  unusual  side  motion 
of  the  shoulders  is  known  as  "rolling"  and  is  more  especial- 
ly found  with  draft  horses  with  widely  separated  shoulders. 
A  horse  that  snaps  his  feet  outside  of  the  line  he  naturally 
should/or  knocks  his  ankles  together,  does  so  at  the  expense 
of  action.  The  walk  of  the  draft  horse  should  show  evi- 
dence of  strength  in  the  full  sense.  He  should  walk  easily 
and  true,  and  by  his  carriage  of  limbs  and  muscling  give 
evidence  of  superior  draft  character.  As  the  horse  walks 
by  the  judge  presenting  a  side  view  the  step  should  be 


Fig.  57. — "lie  sli<ui1d  walk  easily  and  true." 

long  and  powerful  of  stride  rather  than  short  and  uncertain 
in  character.  An  elastic  or  snappy  gait  is  of  prime  im- 
portance. The  horse  that  steps  off  quickly  and  clears  his 
feet  well  from  the  ground  will  do  much  more  work  than  the 
one  that  moves  slowly  and  drags  his  toes,  frequently  stum- 
bling. This  characteristic  of  activity  of  walk  is  not  empha- 
sized as  much  as  it  should  be.  The  Scotch  place  a  premium 
on  this  feature  of  the  Clydesdale,  which  has  resulted  in 
unusual  freedom  of  action  with  this  breed.  The  horse 
that  flexes  his  pasterns  well  at  the  walk,  shows  the  bottoms 


108  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

of  his  feet  with  much  clearness  to  the  judge  standing  be- 
hind. Further,  as  viewed  from  one  side,  the  knee,  hock  and 
fetlocks  flex  strongly,  the  foot  swinging  to  carry  the  toe 
well  behind  and  slightly  upward. 

The  draft  horse  at  a  trot  should  have  a  strong,  regular, 
easy  gait.    The  trot  is  distinctly  secondary  to  the  walk,  yet 


Fig.  58. — "The  draft  horse  that  trots  well  is  usually  a  good  walker." 

the  draft  horse  that  trots  well  is  usually  a  good  walker. 
The  heavy  horse  moves  off  slowly  as  a  rule  though 
with  power.  He  often  drags  his  feet  more  than  he  should 
and  shows  evidence  of  awkwardness.  High  action  should 
not  be  expected,  but  rather  a  strong,  regular,  easy  stride, 
with  the  feet  carried  well  off  the  ground.  At  the  trot  the 
joints  flex  more  than  at  the  walk,  and  the  feet  are  carried 
somewhat  higher.  The  judge  should  examine  the  horse, 
both  at  walk  and  trot,  having  him  led  toward  him  and 
away  from  him,  thus  enabling  him  best  to  study  the  true- 
ness  of  action.  From  a  side  view  one  may  best  judge  the 


THE   TYPES   AND   CLASSES   <)l     1IOKSKS  1Q9 

flexing  of  the  limbs  and  carriage  of  body  while  in  motion. 
If  the  action  is  true  and  snappy  at  the  walk,  then  110  un- 
reasonable penalty  should  be  placed  against  the  horse  that 
lacked  somewhat  in  speed,  though  of  course,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  one  that  will  trot  most  rapidly  has  the  ad- 
vantage. Age  and  training  have  much  to  do  with  the 
character  of  draft  horse  action.  Young,  green  colts  do  not 
show  to  advantage. 


Fig.  59. — "From  a  side  view  one  may  best  judge  the  flexing  of  the 
limbs  and  carriage  of  body  while  in  motion." 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE   COMPARATIVE   STUDY  OF   DRAFT  HORSES. 

IT  is  assumed  that  the  student,  through  the  use  of  the 
score  card,  has  become  acquainted  with  the  points  and 
general  conformation  of  the  draft  horse.  With  this  in- 
strument he  has  attempted  to  analyze  and  measure  the 
value  of  the  points  of  the  individual.  As  a  matter  of 
progress  in  the  study  of  animal  form  it  is  necessary  that 
comparisons  be  drawn  between  individuals.  If  two  horses 
of  the  same  type  stand  side  by  side  it  is  entirely  natural 
to  make  at  once  a  comparison  between  them.  Two  horses 
are  never  mated  up  for  a  team  by  a  discerning  horseman 
without  comparing  their  relative  merits,  their  adaptability 


Fig.  60. — "It  is  important  that  animals  of  approximately  the  same  age 
and  class  be  grouped." 

110 


COMPARATIVE    STl'DV   OF    DRAFT    IIOHSKS          m 

to  each  other,  which  should  be  the  near  and  which  the  off 
horse.  In  the  show  ring  the  comparative  method,  of  neces- . 
sity  prevails,  unless  but  one  animal  is  shown  in  a  class.  In 
the  classroom  a  group  of  four  horses  makes  a  convenient 
number  for  study.  It  is  important  that  animals  of  ap- 
proximately the  same  age  and  class  be  grouped.  This 
admits  of  a  fairer  basis  of  comparison  if  the  type  or  breed, 
height  and  general  size  and  conformation  are  not  mate- 
rially different.  Comparative  judging  is  most  unsatisfactory 
when  horses  of  essentially  different  type  meet  in  a  ring 
in  which  uniformity  of  type  is  desired.  It  is  true  that, 
for  comparative  reasons,  it  may  be  desirable  on  occasion 
to  use  an  animal  of  quite  another  sort  for  the  purpose  of 
contrasting  types  or  breeds,  but  in  general,  groups  become 
the  most  efficient  mediums  for  judging  work  when  uniform 
in  character.  Color  is  not  a  necessary  factor  unless  breed 
study  is  under  consideration.  Draft  type  must  be  the  prime 
feature,  if  this  is  the  subject  of  comparison. 

A  first  step  in  judging  a  group  of  draft  horses  would 
be  to  give  them  a  general  survey.  It  may  be  assumed  that 
they  are  standing  in  a  row,  their  heads  in  line,  awaiting 
examination.  The  judge  should  slowly  pass  about  the 
group  at  sufficient  distance  to  comprehend  the  general 
character  of  the  animals  as  a  whole,  noting  uniformity  of 
type  and  character.  In  this  inspection  he  will  be  im- 
pressed by  some  individuals  more  than  by  others  and  will 
quickly  take  note  of  features  of  special  merit  or  demerit. 
This  general  survey  is  then  followed  by  individual  inspec- 
tion in  which  studied  comparison  is  made  between  animals. 
The  ideal  animal  of  the  type  or  breed  is  in  the  mind  of  tho 
judge  and  as  he  inspects  the  different  individuals  he  com- 
pares them  not  only  with  the  ideal,  but  with  each  other. 
One  of  the  group  must  measure  up  to  a  greater  degree  of 
merit  than  any  of  the  others  and  this  animal  in  due"  time 
is  accorded  first  position.  The  horse  placed  second  must 
be  lacking  in  merit,  compared  with  the  first,  although  the 
difference  between  them  may  not  be  important.  It  is  a 


H2  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

rare  event  for  a  judge  to  be  unable  to  decide  between  two 
animals  for  first  place.  For  reasons  satisfactory  to  himself 
the  judge  places  the  horses  in  their  relative  order  of  merit. 
In  judging  draft  horses  size  and  weight,  in  the  opinion  of 
many,  must  be  regarded  as  of  first  importance,  after  which 
come  various  factors  measured  up  in  comparative  values 
as  expressed  by  the  score  card.  It  is  important  in  this 
consideration  not  to  emphasize  too  heavily  in  themselves 
certain  features,  unless  properly  associated  with  other 
factors  of  conformation  whereby  balance  and  merit  are 
secured.  Notable  defects,  as,  for  example,  a  spavin,  should 
as  a  rule  drop  an  animal  out  of  serious  consideration  unless 
perchance  each  animal  in  the  ring  was  suffering  from  some 
physical  blemish.  But  if  one  is  to  emphasize  strength  of 
loin,  he  should  realize  that  it  ought  to  be  related  to  a  strong 
back  and  coupling  and  naturally  powerful  conformation. 
Judges  are  usually  critical  of  the  feet  of  the  horse  and 
some  men  at  once  place  an  animal  low  in  the  ring  if  the 
feet  do  not  measure  up  to  a  high  standard.  However,  if 
the  feet  are  sound,  yet  of  undesirable  size  or  shape,  there 
may  be  enough  good  qualities  in  the  horse  to  justify  plac- 
ing him  comparatively  high  in  the  line.  In  comparative 
work  the  judge  should  make  his  placings  consistent  and  if 
possible  keep  animals  of  the  same  type  together.  If  there 
is  much  variation  in  type,  then  one  should  seek  to  secure  as 
much  balance  and  merit  as  possible  high  up  in  the  line, 
with  a  gradual  lessening  amount  of  merit  as  we  approach 
the  foot  of  the  line.  It  is  pertinent  here  to  quote  from  an 
important  editorial1  on  the  balanced  horse:  "Frequently 
it  happens  that  some  one  or  more  characteristics  about  a 
horse  are  unduly  magnified  in  importance  while  some  serious 
faults  are  overlooked.  Men  are  ever  likely  to  ride  a  hobby 
to  death.  .  .  .  There  are  many  admirers  of  horses  whose 
judgment  is  seriously  warped,  few  who  have  a  well-balanced 
conception  of  what  constitutes  merit.  One  notices  this 
when  several  men  examine  the  same  horse  at  once.  One 

1  "The  Breeders'  Gazette,"  Vol.  68,  November  4,  1915. 


COMPARATIVE   STUDY  OF   DRAFT  HORSES         H3 

may  pay  closest  attention  to  the  head,  another  to  the  feet, 
and  hocks,  back,  chest,  flanks,  bone  and  weight  may  receive 
concern  from  others.  It  is  true  the  horse  of  all-round 
balanced  merit  of  build  and  finish  is  rare,  and  so  is  the  man 
who  can  appreciate  him  when  found.  One  can  count  on 
the  fingers  of  one  hand  the  men  in  America  who  have 
become  famous  for  ability  to  pick  out  'diamonds  in  the 
rough '  among  horses.  Even  those  who  can  be  counted  on 
consistently  to  rate*  highly  fitted  horses  in  the  show  ring 
are  so  scarce  as  to  exasperate  show  officials.  .  .  .  Evidently 
there  is  too  little  effort  made  to  fix  in  mind  an  ideal, 
balanced  pattern  of  horse,  and  then  adhere  to  it. ' ' 

The  weak  and  strong1  features  of  horses  under  com- 
parison, may  be  set  forth  in  interesting  and  instructive 
form,  by  means  of  a  comparative  card,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  sample: 

DRAFT  HORSE  COMPARISON  CARD. 
Name  of  Judge Date  Judged 


1st  2d  3d  4th 

POINTS  TO  JUDGE.  Place  Place  Place  Place 

Weight A  G  B'  D 

Height      B  A  C  D 

Quality A  C  B  D 

Substance         ....      C  A  D  B 

Head  and  neck      A  C  B  D 

Forehand          A  B  C  D 

Chest         ..      A  G  B  D 

Back          A  C  D  B 

Eibs C  A  B  D 

Flanks       AC  B  D 

Croup        A  C  D  B 

Thijrhs      A  C  B  D 

Feet . .  A  C  D  B 

Action       A  C  B  D 

Placing      A  C  B  D 


114 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


This  is  only  suggestive,  for  the  judge  may  make  up  a  com- 
parative card,  and  on  it  indicate  such  features  as  he  thinks 
desirable.  Each  horse  is  given  a  number  or  letter,  and 
then  is  given  a  grade  in  each  feature.  The  placing  of  a 
group  will  depend  very  much  on  the  number  of  times  A 
was  credited  with  first  place,  B  with  second,  etc.  It  is 
necessary,  however,  that  the  judge  give  the  same  relative 
importance  to  the  points  considered  that  they  are  credited 
with  in  the  scale  of  points.  He  need  not  do  this  numeri- 
cally but  in  his  final  decision  he  must  adjust  his  placings 
so  as  to  be  consistent.  This  comparative  card  is  simply  to 
place  on  record  the  judge's  opinion  of  the  relative  merits 
of  certain  points  he  desires  to  study  as  separate  groups. 
In  a  comparative  study  of  a  ring  of  horses  they  should 
be  examined  in  various  ways.  At  rest,  standing  side  by 
side,  the  heads  and  necks,  the  forehands,  the  thickness  of 
body  and  placing  of  legs  and  front  feet  may  be  seen  to 
advantage  from  a  front  view.  A  rear  view  of  the  hind- 
quarters lined  up  for  comparison,  facilitates  the  study  of 
thickness  of  body,  muscling,  leg  position,  etc.  The  horses 
placed  in  single  file,  directly  back  of  each  other,  furnish 
excellent  opportunity  for  important  comparison,  as  for 


Fig.  61. — "The  groups  as  a  whole  may  first  be  paraded  about  the  ring.' 


COMPARATIVE   STUDY  OF   DRAFT   HORSES          n.-> 

example,  length  and  depth,  balance  and  carriage.  The 
action  of  the  horse  must  also  be  carefully  inspected.  The 
groups  as  a  whole  may  first  be  paraded  about  the  ring 
following  in  single  file,  after  which  individuals  may  be 
tal^eii  one  at  a  time  and  the  action  studied  and  compared. 
Each  horse  should  be  examined  by  the  judge  from  the  same 
points  of  view,  that  his  comparisons  may  be  uniform. 

Reasons  for  positions  assigned  a  ring  of  horses  may  be 
demanded  from  a  judge  at  any  time,  and  should  be  always 
willingly  given.  In  fact,  a  more  instructive  service  would 
be  rendered  at  our  shows  if  judges  were  to  make  a  state- 
ment to  the  ringside  why  awards  are  made  as  they  are. 
Modern  methods  of  education  in  our  schools  and  colleges 
require  the  student  to  give  the  instructor  his  reasons  for 
making  his  decisions.  In  the  various  student  judging  con- 
tests, such  as  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition 
at  Chicago,  the  National  Dairy  Show,  and  in  state  and 
county  competitions,  the  student  is  usually  graded  for  his 
placings  and  reasons  for  making  the  same.  The  students 
are  given  a  limited  amount  of  time  for  placing  the  ring, 
after  which  they  are  taken  aside  and  allowed  time  for  giv- 
ing oral  or  written  reasons.  In  the  International  Live 
Stock  Show  judging  contests,  eighteen  minutes  are  al- 
lowed a  contestant,  "to  make  his  observations,  record  his 
placings,  and  write  such  memoranda  as  he  may  desire. " 
Each  contestant  is  later  called  before  the  judges  and  al- 
lowed two  minutes  to  give  reasons  for  his  placing  of  a 
ring.  At  the  National  Dairy  Show,  written  reasons  are 
required,  the  student  being  allowed  fifteen  minutes  for 
writing  his  reasons  for  placing  a  group.  An  example  of 
student  method  in  giving  written  reasons,  is  herewith 
offered,  as  perhaps  suggestive  and  helpful  to  some  not 
entirely  familiar  with  this  work.  This  is  an  exact  copy 
from  classroom  work,  written  by  one  who  had  no  thought 
of  its  publication  here.  It  is  not  perfect,  but  presents  a 
method  of  expression  in  placing  a  ring  of  four  Percheroii 
mares : 


116 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


"I  placed  D  over  A  on  type,  conformation,  quality 
and  action.  D  more  nearly  represents  the  ideal  Percheron 
mare  type  than  A  by  virtue  of  her  cleaner  cut,  breedier 
head ;  her  stronger,  better  balanced  top ;  her  greater  roomi- 
ness of  middle ;  her  cleaner,  denser  bone,  and  larger,  better 
shaped  feet.  D  shows  more  quality  than  A  in  her  general 


Fig.  02. — Note  the  character  of  fronts  on  these  horses  and  the 
positions  of  legs  and  feet. 


and 


make-up,  and  gets  away  with  more  snap  and  length 
trueness  of  stride. 

"I  placed  A  over  B  on  conformation  and  action.  A 
shows  more  symmetry  of  form,  has  a  more  neatly  turned 
shoulder,  has  more  depth  and  width  of  chest,  a  stronger 
back  and  loin,  a  neater  turn  of  croup,  stands  on  heavier, 
flatter,  cleaner  bone,  and  larger,  better  shaped  feet.  She 
goes  with  a  truer,  more  elastic  stride. 

''I  placed  B  over  C  on  conformation,  quality  and  action. 


COMPARATIVE   STUDY  OF   DRAFT   HORSES         117 

B  has  a  cleaner  cut,  breedier  head ;  more  strength  of  back 
and  roominess  of  middle ;  a  longer,  wider  croup ;  denser 
bone,  and  stands  on  larger  feet  of  better  quality.  B  has 
more  length,  strength  and  trueness  of  stride.  C  is  plain 
about  the  head,  lacks  strength  of  back,  is  too  steep  of 
croup,  has  coarse  bone,  short,  stubby  pasterns,  and  lacks 
ability  to  move." 

The  reasons  given  would  have  been  stronger  if  more 
comparative.  Attention  should  have  been  directed  to  some 
of  the  inferior  characteristics  of  the  one  given  place  over 
the  other,  emphasizing  the  point  that  even  these  were  not 
of  enough  importance  to  reduce  the  animal  to  subordinate 
place.  The  student  should  show  his  ability  to  make  com- 
parative comment  on  weak  as  well  as  strong  features. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

JUDGING  BREEDING  DRAFT  HORSES. 

THE  judging  of  breeding  horses  requires  consideration 
of  sex  characteristics,  and  those  features  of  conformation 
essential  in  the  animal  used  for  reproduction.  It  requires 
the  highest  degree  of  intelligence  on  the  part  of  the  judge 
wisely  to  discriminate  in  selecting  breeding  animals.  If 
one  is  qualified  to  do  this,  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  his 
ability  to  pass  on  geldings. 

(A)— JUDGING   THE   STALLION. 

The  sex  character  of  the  stallion  is  one  of  his  conspicu- 
ous features.  His  head  is  somewhat  stronger  and  larger 
than  that  of  the  mare,  and  his  neck  much  heavier  and 
thicker,  with  some  strength  of  arch.  When  the  stallion  is 
in  superior  physical  vigor  and  spirits,  he  tends  to  carry 
head  and  neck  high,  and  shows  the  self-assertion  and 
dominant  quality  of  the  masculine  sex.  He  should  show 
marked  strength  of  character  in  his  head,  for  it  expresses 
much,  whether  bold  and  toplofty,  or  meek  and  droopy. 
Some  stallions  have  heads  of  an  effeminate  appearance, 
or  resemble  the  gelding  in  sexless  character.  Such  heads 
should  be  discriminated  against  by  both  judge  and  breeder. 
One  could  not  expect  the  best  breeding  results  from  a 
feminine  appearing  sire.  The  neck  should  show  some 
length,  rather  than  be  short  and  steer-like,  and  be  well  laid 
with  powerful,  long  muscles.  A  strong  development  of  hair 
at  the  foretop  and  top  of  the  neck,  is  also  a  feature  of  the 
stallion,  the  hair  tending  to  be  coarse  rather  than  fine. 
The  stallion  should  manifest  in  his  head  and  especially 
eyes,  something  of  his  character,  not  easy  to  define,  yet 
expressing  personality,  temperament,  disposition,  and  sex- 

118 


JUDGING  BREEDING  DRAFT  HORSES       H9 

ual  dominance.  The  sex  character  of  the  stallion  is  also 
shown  in  his  powerful  development  of  bone  and  muscle, 
and  in  his  sexual  organs.  Even  when  of  the  same  size  as 
the  mare,  his  bone  tends  to  be  heavier,  his  muscles  more 
prominent  and  his  frame  more  powerful.  The  sexual 
organs  should  be  perfectly  developed,  and  the  judge  should 
note  that  the  scrotum  consists  of  a  double  sac  and  promi- 
nent enough  to  bear  evidence  of  being  on  a  breeding  animal. 
A  stallion  with  a  single  testicle  is  known  as  a  ridgling,  and 
is  at  least  open  to  criticism  in  the  show  ring,  though  he 
may  not  be  a  non-breeder. 

The  general  body  conformation  of  the  stallion  should 
show  closeness  of  coupling  and  strength  of  back,  but  plenty 
of  length  of  middle.  Some  persons  favor  much  compact- 
ness of  body,  but  if  properly  coupled  and  the  back  strongly 
sustained,  then  the  body  itself  may  have  length  to  ad- 
vantage. The  shoulders  of  the  stallion  are  also  usually 
somewhat  heavier  and  more  prominent  than  on  a  gelding 
or  mare,  giving  a  thickness  in  front  expressive  of  mascu- 
linity and  power. 

The  size  of  the  stallion  usually  exceeds  that  of  tbe.mare, 
though  not  to  a  notable  extent  in  many  cases.  However, 
a  draft  stallion  weighing  2,000  pounds,  might  be  a  satis- 
factory size,  while  the  female  of  the  breed  at  1,700  would 
meet  all  requirements.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  expect 
the  male  to  weigh  three  or  four  hundred  pounds  more  than 
the  female.  Most  men  desire  comparatively  large,  rather 
stretchy  types  of  stallions,  and,,  these  weigh  distinctly 
more  than  the  low  set,  compact,  chunky  sort.  This  type  of 
stallion  stands  higher  than  the  mares,  and  is  larger  and 
coarser  in  every  way. 

The  constitutional  vigor  of  the  stallion  should  also 
receive  consideration.  This  is  shown  in  the  strength  and 
character  of  the  head,  but  is  especially  seen  in  the  promi- 
nence of  breast  and  the  depth  and  fullness  of  chest.  The 
degree  of  width  of  chest  will  depend  upon  the  type,  the 
draft  stallion  showing  more  than  the  lighter  sort,  but  this 


120 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


should  not  be  extreme.  It  is  important  that  the  forerib 
be  well  arched,  but  even  more  desirable  that  it  be  long,  and 
so  account  for  a  strong  heart  girth  and  full  flank.  Not 
only  this,  but  a  long  forerib  is  sure  to  be  associated  with 
general  depth  of  body,  feeding  capacity,  and  vitality.  A 
horse  with  shallow  body  and  long  legs  cannot  stand  up 
under  work,  and  does  not  show  the  constitution  that  the 
deeper  bodied,  lower  set  one  does.  Constitutional  vigor 
in  the  male,  is  regarded  as  of  prime  importance,  and  judges 
should  give  it  due  recognition. 

The  temperament  of  the  stallion  will  be  shown  in  a 
degree,  according  to  his  type,  the  heavy  draft  horse  being 
somewhat  quieter  and  more  phlegmatic  than  the  lighter 
type.  In  general  however,  when  not  overworked,  the  stal- 
lion shows  an  animated,  aggressive  character,  with  evi- 
dence of  much  reserve  nervous  force.  If  overworked,  he 
loses  much  of  his  fire  and  ambition.  In  the  city  of  Paris 
there  are  thousands  of  draft  stallions  stolidly  pulling  away 
at  enormous  loads,  quiet  and  indifferent  as  to  what  is  going 
on  about  them,  giving  little  evidence  of  the  naturally  bold 
temperament  of  the  sex.  The  stallion  should  be  active 


Fig.  63. — "In  the  city  of  Paris  there  are  thousands  of  draft  stallions 
stolidly  pulling  away  at  enormous  loads." 


JUDGING  BREEDING  DRAFT  HORSES 


121 


and  alert,  yet  not  nervous  and  irritable.  His  disposition 
is  usually  good,  but  he  will  bear  watching  for  he  may  be 
unnecessarily  playful  with  either  teeth  or  feet. 

(B)— JUDGING  THE  MARE. 

The  sex  character  of  the  mare  is  seen  in  a  smaller  and 
more  refined  head  than  has  the  stallion,  and  a  more  slender, 
less  muscular  neck.  The  beautiful,  symmetrical  propor- 


Fiu.  64. — "The  beautiful,  symmetrical  proportion  of  head  ;  the  mild,  quiet, 
inquiring  eyes,  and  the  delicate,  attentive  ears,  give  strong  evidence  of 
feminine  and  maternal  qualities." 

tions  of  head;  the  mild,  quiet,  inquiring  eyes;  and  the 
delicate  attentive  ears,  give  strong  evidence  of  feminine 
and  maternal  qualities.  If  the  stallion  is  bold  and  inde- 
pendent, the  mare  is  both  shy  and  friendly.  The  udder  of 
the  mare  is  small,  consisting  of  a  double  gland  and  two 
teats.  This  is  not  conspicuous,  excepting  while  nursing  the 
foal.  It  is  desirable  that  the  judge  note  the  size  of  the 
udder  and  teats.  If  nursing,  the  udders  should  be  well 
extended  between  the  thighs,  and  carry  two  good  sized  teats. 


122  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  conformation  of  the  mare  is  narrower  all  through 
than  in  the  stallion.  The  shoulders  are  comparatively 
light,  the  withers  narrow,  the  breast  and  chest  less  thick 
than  with  the  male,  and  the  body  long  and  deep.  At  ma- 
turity, the  belly  of  the  mare  often  shows  considerable 
roundness  and  downward  curve,  features  associated  with 
reproduction.  While  her  back  should  be  well  sustained, 
she  should  show  a  long  line  and  great  capacity  between  the 
front  and  hind  flanks.  The  limbs  of  the  mare  often  dis- 
play delicacy  of  outline  and  refinement  of  bone. 

The  constitutional  vigor  of  the  mare  as  with  the  stal- 
lion, is  shown  in  the  active,  alert  character  of  head  and  eye, 
in  the  depth  and  prominence  of  breast,  the  width  and 
strength  of  back,  and  the  length,  depth  and  capacity  of 
body.  There  are  really  no  essential  differences,  excepting 
in  degree,  in  the  various  features  which  guide  one  in  deter- 
mining constitutional  vigor,  in  either  mare  or  stallion. 

The  temperament  of  the  mare  is  less  active  as  a  rule 
than  in  case  of  the  stallion.  She  is  not  self-assertive, 
but  not  necessarily  lacking  in  interest  in  things  about  her. 
Her  disposition  may  be  quite  variable,  though  she  is  not 
likely  to  be  as  aggressive  as  the  stallion.  The  temperament 
in  most  cases  is  more  notable  from  the  standpoint  of  type 
than  sex. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

BREEDS   OF  DRAFT  HORSES. 

PURE  bred  draft  horses  are  rapidly  growing  in  favor  in 
America.  In  fact,  horses  of  true  draft  class  very  generally 
show  pronounced  breed  character.  This  is  naturally  due  to 
the  use  of  pure  bred  sires  of  the  draft  breeds.  Brief  de- 
scriptions are  herewith  given  of  the  more  important  char- 
acteristics of  each  important  draft  breed.  No  scales  of 
points  have  thus  far  been  adopted  by  any  of  the  official 
associations  registering  pure  bred  draft  horses. 

The  Percheron  horse  originated  in  northwestern  France, 
in  La  Perche  district.  The  Percheron  is  a  medium  sized 
draft  breed,  though  many  individuals  attain  great  scale. 
Mature  stallions  weigh  from  1,700  to  2,000  pounds,  and 
mature  mares  from  1,500  to  1,800  pounds.  The  height 
commonly  ranges  from  16  to  17  hands.  The  color  is  usually 
gray  of  some  shade,  or  black.  In  recent  years  black  has 
grown  greatty  in  popularity,  both  in  France  and  America. 
Bay  or  brown  colors  occur  but  are  quite  uncommon,  and 
are  not  regarded  as  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the 
breed.  Percherons  possess  certain  distinctive  and  common 
features.  The  head  is  breedy  in  character,  of  prominent 
eye  and  open  countenance,  suggesting  a  dash  of  Oriental 
blood.  The  neck  is  long  and  powerful,  and  though  the  back 
is  broad  and  well  carried,  the  body  quite  often  lacks  depth 
in  comparison  with  the  Shire  or  Belgian.  The  croup,  while 
wide  and  powerfully  muscled,  naturally  tends  to  some 
steepness.  The  legs  are  strong  of  bone  and  should  be  quite 
free  of  long  hair  about  the  fetlocks.  Percheron  feet  are 
usually  of  superior  dark  texture  and  of  excellent  size  and 

123 


124 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


Fig.  65. — Percheron  mare  Hysope.    Champion  International  Live  Stock 
Exposition,  1912.     (From  photograph  by  Hildebrand.) 


form.  This  is  one  of  the  most  active  of  draft  breeds,  yet 
withal  quiet  and  steady  under  the  collar.  The  readiness 
of  the  Percheron  to  respond  to  the  driver,  its  capacity  to 
endure  work,  its  freedom  from  long  hairs  on  the  legs,  and 
excellent  feet,  are  factors  that  have  largely  contributed 
to  the  great  popularity  of  this  breed  in  America,  where  it 
far  outnumbers  all  other  draft  breeds  combined. 


BREEDS   OF   DRAFT   HORSES 


125 


The  Belgian  horse  originated  in  Belgium,  where  it  lias 
been  bred  for  several  centuries.  This  is  a  very  compact,  wide, 
deep,  short-legged  kind  of  draft  horse.  In  Belgium  one 
sees  three  types  of  this  breed  •  the  larger  type,  common  in 
Flanders,  shows  more  length  and  is  more  upstanding  than 
the  medium  type  of  Brabant  or  the  smaller  sort  of  Arden- 
nais.  American  importers  have  brought  the  larger  or 


Fig.  GO. — A  Belgian  mare.     (Courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 

medium  type  to  this  country.  "Weights  of  from  1,600  to 
2,000  pounds,  and  even  more  for  the  larger  stallions  are 
acceptable,  with  a  height  of  about  16  hands.  Chestnut  is 
the  most  popular  color,  though  brown  of  various  shades, 
and  roans,  are  quite  common.  Compactness  and  muscu- 
larity are  Belgian  attributes,  and  so  the  neck  appears  short 
and  thick;  the  body  wide,  deep  and  closely  coupled;  the 
croup  often  steep,  and  the  legs  commonly  short.  Bel- 
gians are  frequently  somewhat  refined  in  bone  for  weight 


126 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


of  body,  and  are  free  from  long  hair.  The  feet  tend  to  be 
small,  and  lacking  in  fulness  at  hoof-head  and  heel, 
though  these  deficiencies  are  being  gradually  reduced. 
The  Belgian  is  notable  among  draft  horses  for  its  activity, 
and  the  ability  to  move  freely  at  a  trot.  Horses  of  this  breed 
have  been  raised  in  Belgium  in  close  touch  with  the  family 
and  so  are  very  docile  and  easily  handled. 

The  Clydesdale  horse  is  named  after  the  Clyde  district 
in  southwestern  Scotland,  where  this  horse  has  been  known 
since  about  1715.  The  Clydesdale  is  a  medium  sized  draft 
animal,  the  mature  stallions  weighing  1,800  to  2,000  pounds, 
the  mares  1,600  to  1,700.  A  height  of  about  16y2  hands 
meets  with  approval.  The  color  is  usually  a  bay  or  brown, 
with  white  on  the  face  and  on  the  legs  below  knee  and  hock. 


Fig.    67. — Clydesdale    stallion 


photograph.) 


(From    a    Scotch 


BREEDS  OF   DRAFT   HORSES 


127 


Fig.  68. — "The  Shire  is  a  larger  and  more  massive  breed  than  the 
Clydesdale." 

White,  however,  may  occasionally  extend  beyond  these 
points.  Chestnut,  black,  and  gray  are  colors  that  occur 
occasionally  with  this  breed.  There  are  certain  features 
quite  distinctive  of  this  breed.  Clydesdale  men  emphasize 
the  long,  sloping  shoulder;  the  broad,  long,  comparatively 
level  croup ;  the  superior  hair  and  bone,  especially  as  seen 
in  the  legs,  and  the  strong,  superior  movement  of  knee  and 
hock.  The  Scotchman  believes  his  horse  has  the  best  of 
feet  and  legs,  and  when  either  walking  or  trotting,  his 
action  is  the  best  of  any  of  the  draft  breeds.  Large,  round 
feet,  often  white,  are  characteristic,  though  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  flat-footedness.  Long,  flowing  hairs  are  set  in 
the  back  of  the  legs  below  knee  and  hock.  The  body 
of  the  Clydesdale  frequently  lacks  massiveness  and  depth, 


128  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

and  this  horse  therefore  often  appears  light  of  middle 
or  short  of  rib,  and  consequently  somewhat  upstanding. 
The  criticism  which  this  lack  of  massiveness  has  caused, 
is  resulting  in  substantial  breed  improvement  in  this  regard. 
The  Shire  horse  is  an  English  breed  of  much  the  same 
general  character  as  the  Clydesdale.  It  has  been  bred  for 


Pig.  69. — "The  round,  full  form  of  body  gave  this  horse  in  its  native 
home  the  name  of  Suffolk  Punch." 

many  years  in  England,  and  is  as  popular  with  the  English 
as  the  Clydesdale  is  with  the  Scotch.  The  Shire  has  hairy 
legs  like  the  Clyde.  The  color  is  usually  bay  or  brown,  with 
white  markings,  as  with  the  Clydesdale.  However,  black, 
roan,  chestnut  or  gray  are  not  unusual  colors.  The  Shire 
is  a  larger  and  more  massive  breed  than  the  Clydesdale, 
with  wider  back  and  deeper,  heavier  body.  In  this  breed 
we  find  our  heaviest  draft  horse,  with  stallions:  weighing 


BREEDS  OF   DRAFT   HORSES  129 

1,800  to  2,200  pounds  or  more,  and  the  mares  1,700  to  1,900 
pounds.  A  height  of  17  hands  is  acceptable.  A  large  head, 
with  a  tendency  to  Roman  nose,  great  scale  and  massive 
body  are  features  of  a  superior  Shire.  The  shoulders  and 
pasterns  tend  to  undesirable  straightness ;  the  bone  is  fre- 
quently heavy;  and  the  feet  large  and  inclined  to  be  flat. 
Formerly  the  Shire  was  regarded  as  coarse,  heavy  and 
slow  in  movement,  and  lacking  in  good  action.  In  recent 
years  English  breeders  have  done  much  to  improve  them, 
and  the  criticisms  of  slow  movement  and  coarseness  are 
not  as  generally  true  to-day  as  they  once  were. 

The  Suffolk  horse  is  a  breed  that  originated  long  ago  in 
Suffolk  county,  on  the  east  coast  of  England.  Few  horses 
of  this  breed  are  found  in  America.  The  color  is  chestnut, 
varying  from  light  to  dark.  The  size  is  medium,  stallions 
commonly  weighing  1,800  to  1,900  pounds,  and  standing 
16  to  17  hands  high.  It  is  characterized  by  a  distinctly 
Roman  face ;  crested  neck ;  a  very  wide,  deep-ribbed,  com- 
pact body ;  and  short,  clean  legs.  The  round,  full  form  of 
body  gave  this  horse  in  its  native  home  the  name  of  Suffolk 
Punch,  a  term  not  so  commonly  used  to-day.  The  hocks 
have  been  somewhat  criticized  as  lacking  in  depth,  and  the 
feet  have  also  been  faulted  for  being  too  small  and  shelly. 
In  their  native  Suffolk,  one  sees  fine  specimens  of  this  breed, 
where  they  are  regarded  as  very  superior  draft  horses  for 
farm  work. 


CHAPTER  X. 

JUDGING  HORSES  OF  LIGHT  HARNESS  TYPE. 

IN  the  discussion  of  the  draft  horse  in  the  preceding 
pages,  many  things  are  considered  in  some  detail,  that  have 
a  general  application  to  all  types  of  horses,  and  need  not 
be  taken  up  again.  Therefore,  it  is  highly  desirable  that 
the  reader  first  familiarize  himself  with  the  subject  of 
judging  draft  horses.  Emphasis  will  be  placed  in  the 
following  pages  on  those  features  that  have  special  applica- 
tion to  the  type  under  consideration.  In  comparison  the 
light  harness  horse  is  much  smaller  than  the  draft  horse, 
and  is  narrower  and  less  inclined  to  fleshiness.  He  is  bred 
for  speed  and  rapid  gait,  consequently  he  should  not  be 
encumbered  with  unnecessary  weight.  The  light  harness 


Fi£.  70. — "The  light  harness  horse  is  much  smaller  than  the  draft 
horse,  and  is  narrower  and  less  inclined  to  fleshiness."  (Reproduced  from 
photoffraph  by  Schreiber  &  Sons.) 

130 


JUDGING   HORSES  OF    LIGHT   HARNESS   TYPE      131 

type,  however,  as  seen  in  the  American  roadster,  trotter  or 
pacer,  varies  greatly  in  size  and  conformation.  This  is  due 
to  the  lack  of  systematic  breeding  within  this  class,  and  the 
mating  of  animals  of  widely  different  blood  lines  and  con- 
formation. The  discussion  following  is  meant  to  apply  to 
a  type  of  the  light  harness  horse,  bred  for  driving  and  speed, 
that  is  of  medium  size  and  meets  the  demands  of  American 
horsemen.  What  is  known  as  the  "Standard  Bred"  is 
another  name  for  this  same  type. 

JUDGING  LIGHT  HARNESS  TYPE  OF  HORSE  BY  SCALE 
OF  POINTS. 

The  height  of  the  light  harness  horse  usually  ranges 
from  15!/4  to  16  hands,  though  it  may  vary  even  more  than 
this.  A  height  from  15T/4  to  15%  may  be  considered  most 
desirable. 

The  weight  of  the  light  harness  horse  varies  even  more 
than  the  height.  In  general  1,100  pounds  may  be  regarded 
with  favor.  However,  stallions  outweigh  mares  as  a  rule 
and  1,100  to  1,250  pounds  for  the  former,  and  900  to  1,100 
for  the  latter,  are  satisfying  ranges  of  weight.  In  judging 
a  class,  most  men  would  discriminate  against  undersize, 
though  excessive  weight  and  grossness  would  be  equally 

bad/ 

SCORE  CARD   FOR  LIGHT   HARNESS   HORSES. 

Standard  of   Score  of 

SCALE    OF   POINTS  Perfect        Horse 

Score        Studied 
A— GENERAL  APPEARANCE,   12  Points: 

1.  Height  estimated   hands Actual  hands 

2.  Weight,  1,200  Ibs.  for  stallion,  1,000  Ibs.  for  mare.  . 

Estimated  weight         

Actual  weight        

?,.    Form,  long,   deep,  muscular,   angular        -1 

4.  Quality,    general    refinement    and    finish    shown    in 

clearly  defined  features  of  head,  bone,  and 
joints,  prominent  tendons  and  fine  skin  and 
hair  4 

5.  Temperament,  active,  docile,  disposition  good  .         .  .        4 
B— HEAD  AND  NECK,  8  Points: 

(!.    Head    in   good   proportions,    clear   cut,    straight   face, 

line,   angle  lower  jaw  wide        .  .       .          .  .       ..  2 

7.  Forehead,  broad,   full          .  .  1 

8.  Eyes,  prominent,  large,  clear,  bright  .  .  I 


132  JUDGING    FARM   ANIMALS 

Standard  of  Score  of 

SCALE   OF   POINTS                                         Perfect  Horse 

tSeiore  Studied 

9.    Muzzle,  fine,   lips  thin   and  even,   teeth  sound,  nos- 
trils large 1  .... 

10.  Ears,   medium    size,   fine,   pointed,    set   close,   carried 

alert       1 

11.  Neck,   long,   lean,   slightly   arched,  throat-latch   fine, 

windpipe  large 

C — FOREHAND,  24  Points: 

12.  Shoulders,  long,   oblique,  light,   smooth 2 

13.  Arms,  short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward   .  .       .  .         1 

14.  Forearms,   long,  wide,  muscular         2 

15.  Knees,    straight,    wide,    deep,    clean,    strongly    sup- 

ported       

16.  Cannons,    short,   wide,   tendons   prominent    and   well 

set  back        2 

17.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  tendons  well  back      .  .       .  .         2 

18.  Pasterns,  long,  oblique    (angle  about  45°),  smooth, 

strong 0 

19.  Feet,  medium  size,  even,  round,  straight ;  slope  par- 

allel   to    pastern;    sole    concave;    bars    strong; 
%rog   large,    elastic;    heel    wide,    full,    1-3    length 
of  toe ;   horn  dense,   smooth       6 

20.  Legs,    properly    placed,    according    to    description    in 

draft  horse  score  card 4  .... 

D— BODY,  10  Points: 

21.  Withers,  high,  narrow,  extending  well  back    .  .       .  .  1  .... 

22.  Chest,  medium  width,  deep        2  .... 

23.  Bibs,   long,   moderately   sprung,   close       2  .... 

24.  Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  strong 2  .... 

25.  Loin,    short,   broad,    strong         2 

26.  Flanks,  deep,  full,  long,  low  underline 1  .... 

E — HINDQUARTERS,  27  Points: 

27.  Hips,  wide-spaced,  smooth,  level        2  .... 

28.  Croup,  long,  wide,  smooth,  level  tendency        .  .       .  .  2  .... 

29.  Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried        1  .... 

30.  Thighs,  long,  muscular;  stifles  prominent,  well  set   .  .  2  .... 

31.  Gaskins,  long,  broad,  muscular 2  .... 

32.  Hocks,  straight,  wide,  deep,  clean  cut,  point  promi- 

nent, well  supported 5  .... 

33.  Cannons,    short,   wide,   flat,   clean,   tendons   well   de- 

fined, set  well  back 2  .... 

34.  Fetlocks,  wide,   straight,  tendons  well  back    .  .       .  .         1  .... 

35.  Pasterns,    long,    not   so    oblique   as   in  front    (about 

50°),    strong        .  .       2  .... 

36.  Feet,  medium  size,  even,  round,  straight;   slope  par- 

allel to  pastern;  sole  concave;  bars  strong; 
frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide,  full,  1-3  length 
toe;  horn  dense 4  .... 

37.  Legs,    properly    placed,    according    to    definition    in 

draft  horse  score  card 4               .... 

F — ACTION,  19  Points: 

38.  Walk,  long,  free  stride        5  

39.  Trot,   long,    straight,   regular,   rapid,   easy   stride      .  .  14 

Total     .  .    100 


JUDGING   HORSES  OF    LIGHT   HARNESS   TYPE      133 

The  general  form  of  the  light  harness  horse  should  be 
comparatively  long,  narrow  and  deep,  with  a  muscular 
appearance,  and  a  tendency  to  angularity.  The  muscles 
and  joints  incline  to  prominence,  and  the  ribs  are  more  or 


Fig.   71. — "A  horse  of  this   type,   with   thickness  of  form,    could   not  be 

exported   to  produce  the  greatest  speed." 

less  noticeable.    A  horse  of  this  type  with  thickness  of  form, 
could  not  be  expected  to  produce  the  greatest  speed. 

The  quality  of  the  light  harness  horse  is  shown  in  the 
general  refinement  of  parts,  the  head  and  limbs  being  small, 
and  free  from  coarseness.  The  lines  of  the  head  are  well 
defined,  the  ears  small  and  thin,  the  skin  is  also  thin,  and 
the  hair  fine  and  silky.  The  bone  is  comparatively  small, 
and  the  joints  are  quite  lean.  The  leanness  of  leg  enables 
one  often  to  see  the  tendons  very  easily.  The  appearance 


134 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


of  veins  on  the  surface  of  face,  shoulders,  lower  part  of 
body,  and  upper  part  of  limbs,  are  expressive  of  quality 
and  superior  breeding.  So  also  the  prominent,  delicate 
nostril  is  a  sign  of  quality. 

The  temperament  of  the  light  harness  horse  is  natu- 
rally nervous,  indicating  the  desire  for  action.  Of  an  active 
type,  he  is  well  fitted  for  speed  and  motion.  If  sleepy  and 
dull,  a  vital  quality  of  the  type  is  lacking.  Too  lively  tem- 
perament is  undesirable,  but  the  horse  should  manifest  an 
interest  in  his  surroundings,  and  express  animation  to  a 
degree  indicating  both  intelligence  and  potent  muscular 
activity.  In  disposition,  we  find  wide  extremes  among  light 
harness  horses,  due  to  differences  in  inheritance.  In  gen- 
eral horses  of  this  class  are  of  good  disposition  and  not 
given  to  biting,  kicking  or  other  meanness  to  any  unusual 

degree.  The  judge  is  justified 
in  attaching  importance  to 
disposition  as  closely  related 
to  temperament,  and  as  dis- 
tinctive of  the  type. 

The  head  of  the  light  har- 
ness horse  should  be  lean  and 
shapely,  the  profile  showing 
quite  straight  from  ears  to 
nose.  Craig  makes  the  obser- 
vation 1  that  in  scanning  the 
photographs  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  trotters,  "  nearly  all 
stallions  have  slight  Roman 
noses  while  most  of  the  mares 
have  slightly  dished  faces,  a 
distinction  which  seems  to  be 
characteristic  of  the  sexes." 
A  very  prominent  Roman 
nose  he  regards  as  indicative 


Fig.  72. — "The  profile  showing 
quite  straight  from  ears  to  nose." 


1  Judging  Live   Stock,    6th  ed.,    1904,  p.   2L 


JUDGING   HORSES   OF   LIGHT   HARNESS   TYPE      135 

of  a  self-willed  disposition.  The  more  distinctive  features 
of  the  head  of  this  type  of  horse,  is  marked  leanness,  with 
veins  often  showing-  prominently  under  the  skin.  A  coarse, 
meaty  head  is  highly  objectionable,  and  should  be  discrimi- 
nated against  by  the  judge.  Sensitive,  well-defined  nostrils, 
and  thin,  even  lips  are  found  among  the  best  examples  of 
this  type. 

The  neck  of  the  light  harness  horse  is  essentially  long, 
lean  and  muscular.  Often  the  stallions  show  but  little  crest! 
The  neck  should  be  carried  gracefully,  and  raised  enough 
to  support  the  head  as  becomes  a  horse  of  vigor.  The  speed 
horse  naturally  possesses  a  long  neck,  and  as  the  type  ap- 
proaches draft  rather  than  speed  form,  the  'neck  shortens 
and  thickens.  The  proper  length  of  neck  is  assumed  to  be 
that  which  enables  the  horse  to  graze  easily.  Flexibility 


Fig.  73. — "The  long,  flexible  neck  is  a  striking  feature  of  conformation.' 


136  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

of  neck  is  essential  in  the  speed  horse,  and  to  secure  this, 
there  must  be  ample  length  and  muscularity  without  any 
undesirable  thickness.  Hayes  states1*  that  "when  'clever- 
ness' is  essential  to  a  horse,  he  should  have  a  flexible  neck, 
and  should  be  able  to  bend  and  extend  it  with  utmost  fa- 
cility, so  as  to  use  his  head  and  neck  as  balancing  pole  for 
preserving  the  equilibrium  of  his  body."  Patrons  of  the 
race  track  who  are  interested  in  the  horse,  are  well  aware 
that  the  long,  flexible  neck  is  a  striking  feature  of  con- 
formation. It  is  desirable,  for  good  conformation,  to  have 
a  top  line  of  neck  with  a  very  slight  arch,  but  not  enough 
to  be  conspicuous,  excepting  among  stallions.  Ewe  necks 
are  not  uncommon  among  light  harness  horses,  but  this 
conformation  is  neither  beautiful  nor  muscular.  Hayes,  in 
referring  to  this  kind  of  neck  2  with  light  harness  horses, 
states  that  it  seems  to  be  no  detriment  to  speed,  but  that  it 
might  affect  his  handiness,  by  depriving  his  rider  or  driver, 
to  some  extent,  of  command  of  him,  and  by  causing  his 
head  to  be  brought  into  a  direction  which  might  prevent 
him  seeing  clearly  where  he  is  going.  According  to  Gou- 
baux  and  Barriere, 3  ' '  The  neck  is  called  straight  or  pyra- 
midal, when  its  borders  are  rectilinear,  and  its  lateral  faces 
nearly  plane  or  but  slightly  rounded,  according  to  the  age, 
the  sex,  the  volume  of  the  muscles,  etc.,  of  the  animal.  The 
head  is  then  well  supported  and  well  directed."  Such  a 
type  of  neck  applies  especially  to  the  light  harness  horse. 
The  shoulders  of  the  light  harness  horse  should  be 
long  and  especially  oblique  or  sloping,  for  the  reason  that 
the  horse  with  a  long,  oblique,  light  shoulder  is  able  to 
raise  his  fore  limb  and  advance  it  more  easily  than  with 
a  more  upright  or  straight  shoulder.  Obliqueness  in  itself, 
however,  is  no  guarantee  of  speed,  for  we  know  that  deer 
and  antelope,  the  shoulders  of  which  incline  to  be  upright, 
are  very  rapid  travelers.  However,  in  the  artificial  con- 

l!XThe  Points  of  the  Horse,  3d  ed.,  1904,  p.  221. 
2  The  Points  of  the  Horse,  3d  ed.,  1904,  p.  224. 
s  The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,  2d  ed.,  1904,  p.  99. 


JUDGING   HORSES   OF   LIGHT   HARNESS   TYPE      137 

ditions  of  bearing  burdens  and  the  experience  of  training, 
the  horse  with  the  light,  oblique  blade  has  less  concussion 
of  fore  limb  and  is  able  to  stand  long  and  severe  effort 
better  than  the  horse  with  upright  blade.  Thickness  or 
fullness  of  shoulder  in  its  upper  part,  especially  about  the 
withers,  is  very  undesirable.  A  combination  of  lightness 
and  obliqueness  secures  the  most  perfect  action.  Hayes 
states  that  he  has  seen  many  sprinters  with  upright  shoul- 
ders, but  he  has  never  seen  a  genuine  stayer,  such  as  Or- 
monde, St.  Gatien,  or  Eobert  the  Devil,  with  that  kind  of 
conformation.  There  is  no  controversy  among  light  horse 
critics  as  to  the  significance  and  value  of  the  light,  oblique 
shoulder.  Among  draft  horsemen,  however,  there  is  more 
tolerance  for  the  upright  position.  The  light  harness  judge 
should  emphasize  this  matter  of  desirable  shoulder  con- 
formation. 

The  arms  and  forearms  of  the  light  harness  horse  should 
be  reasonably  muscular.  The  heavy  muscularity  of  the 
draft  horse  is  not  looked  for,  but  a  wide,  firm  covering  here 
is  desirable.  In  producing  great  speed,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  muscles  back  of  the  forearm  be  strongly  developed,  as 
they  are  brought  into  active  play  in  raising  the  foreleg. 

The  knees  of  the  light  harness  horse  should  possess  the 
same  desirable  qualities  to  be  found  in  the  draft  horse, 
though  the  conformation  will  be  less  gross  and  more 
sharply  defined. 

The  cannons  of  the  light  harness  horse  are  rarely  fleshy, 
being  simply  the  combination  of  bone,  tendon,  ligament 
and  skin,  with  flesh  or  muscle  reduced  to  a  minimum.  A 
short,  clean,  smooth  cannon,  with  the  tendons  carried  well 
back,  and  parallel  with  the  bone,  are  prime  features  of  the 
horse  with  rapid  gait.  Roughness  of  bone  is  easily  noted 
in  this  type,  and  is  an  evidence  of  weakness.  Long  cannon 
bones  are  undesirable,  for  they  lack  the  strength  of  the 
shorter  ones.  Further,  as  a  rule,  the  horse  of  greatest 
speed-producing  power  has  a  short  rather  than  long  can- 
non. Horse  critics  often  emphasize  the  point  that  the 


138 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  74. — "On  the  light  type  of  horse  the  bone  and  tendons  are  usually 
seen  without  difficulty."     The  noted  trotter  The  Harvester. 


cannon  bones  should  be  hard  and  of  superior  substance. 
It  is  not  easy  to  determine  the  quality  of  the  bone  except- 
ing in  a  relative  way,  as  for  example,  by  smoothness  and 
proportions  of  the  part.  The  application  of  the  hands 
should  show  the  bone  itself  very  clean  and  smooth,  with  the 
back  tendons  prominent  and  a  complete  freedom  from 
puffiness,  soft  tissue  or  roughness.  On  the  light  type  of 
horse  the  bone  and  tendon  are  usually  seen  without  diffi- 
culty and  handling  is  not  necessary.  Emphasis  should  be 
placed  on  the  tendons  being  parallel  with  the  bone,  and  the 
upper  part  of  cannon  presenting  a  strong  depth  from  front 
to  rear,  entirely  free  from  a  tied-in  appearance  just  below 
the  knee. 

The  pasterns  of  the  light  harness  horse  should  be  long, 
smooth  and  strong,  being  carried  at  an  angle  of  about  45 


JUDGING   HORSES   OF   LIGHT   HARNESS   TYPE      139 

degrees.  The  shoulder  and  pastern  have  much  work  in 
common,  and  if  the  speed  is  great,  or  the  work  severe,  the 
pastern  will  bear  up  under  it  best,  if  long,  strong,  and 
springy.  Severe  concussion  will  not  be  so  likely  to  occur 
with  such  a  pastern.  If  short  and  stubby,  the  gait  will  be 
hard  and  slow,  and  foot  trouble  may  very  likely  result. 
It  will  be  well  to  note  here,  however,  that  on  soft  ground 
conditions  are  more  favorable  for  the  short,  less  oblique 
pastern.  On  the  hard  American  race  track  and  ordinary 
highway,  the  long,  oblique  pastern  results  in  a  minimum 
concussion.  The  long  pastern  allows  for  greater  movement 
of  the  fetlock  joint,  an  essential  if  speed  is  desired.  It  is 
important  that  the  pastern  should  not  be  too  sloping,  as 
occasionally  occurs,  with  the  fetlock  extending  back  of  the 
foot  to  a  marked  degree.  This  is  a  defect  due  to  a  weaken- 
ing of  the  tendons  and  ligaments  above. 

The  foot  of  the  light  harness  horse  does  not  differ  from 
that  of  the  draft  horse,  excepting  in  degree.  Besides  being 
smaller,  it  no  doubt  has  a  tougher  hoof  than  that  of  the 
heavier  horse,  and  consequently  is  less  inclined  to  wear 
away  and  take  on  bad  form.  The  feet  should  be  of  medium 
size,  good  mates  in  both  size  and  shape ;  be  wide  at  the  heel 
and  not  too  low  set  at  this  point,  and  have  well  developed 
frog,  and  strong  bars.  The  length  of  heel  should  be  about 
one-third  the  length  of  the  front  of  the  hoof.  Such  a  foot 
withstands  the  severe  concussion  of  heavy  driving,  and  en- 
ables the  horse  to  do  his  work  without  discomfort  as  far  as 
the  feet  are  concerned.  The  judge  is  not  likely  to  over- 
estimate the  importance  of  the  feet,  and  if  he  turns  a  horso 
down  for  defective  under-pinning,  his  work  will  be  com- 
mended by  critics,  rather  than  otherwise. 

The  position  of  the  front  legs  of  the  light  harness  horse 
when  at  rest,  is  correctly  described  under  the  discussion  of 
the  draft  horse,  on  page  88. 

The  body  of  the  light  harness  horse  differs  from  that 
of  the  draft  horse,  in  being  smaller  and  having  a  greater 
relative  depth  than  breadth.  As  viewed  from  in  front  or 


Fig.  75. — "As  viewed  from  in  front  or  behind,  one  is 
impressed  with  a  degree  of  narrowness  of  body.  Width 
is  undesirable  from  a  speed  point  of  view." 


JUDGING   HORSES   OF   LIGHT   HARNESS   TYPE      141 

behind,  one  is  impressed  with  a  degree  of  narrowness  of 
body.  Width  is  undesirable  from  a  speed  point  of  view, 
and  no  great  race  horses  have  been  notably  wide.  Hayes 
states  that  he  is  convinced  that  no  race  horse  can  be  too 
narrow  in  front,  for  the  width  of  frontage  is  essentially 
that  of  the  body.  Persons  familiar  with  the  trotter  or 
pacer,  recognize  that  while  the  body  may  show  plenty  of 
capacity  for  the  various  organs,  this  capacity  is  seen  in 
depth  rather  than  in  width.  The  high  elevation  of  the 
withers,  and  their  lean,  long  appearance,  add  to  the  gen- 
eral effect  of  depth  of  body.  So  also  a  rib  formation 
showing  ample  length,  yet  only  moderate  spring  or  arch, 
is  in  harmony  with  the  desired  conformation.  The  back 
of  the  race  horse  should  be  short  and  strong,  for  the 
longer  it  is,  the  weaker  will  be  the  muscular  connection 
essential  in  speed  production.  So  also  should  the  loin  be 
short,  broad  and  thick,  indicating  strength. 

The  hindquarters  of  the  light  harness  horse  often  stand 
at  a  slightly  higher  elevation  than  the  forequarters  at  the 
withers,  and  have  a  lean  and  somewhat  angular  appear- 
ance. The  hips  should  be  less  fleshed  over  than  in  the  draft 
horse.  The  croup  should  be  long  and  muscular,  and  tend 
to  be  level  from  between  the  hips  to  setting  on  of  tail. 
Steepness  of  croup  is  quite  common  among  light  harness 
horses,  especially  pacers,  a  side  view  showing  a  marked 
slope.  In  the  case  of  the  trotter  the  croup  is  carried 
higher  and  in  better  form.  Hayes  states4  that,  "to  have 
the  point  of  the  buttock  placed  high  and  projecting  well 
to  the  rear  is  a  great  beauty,  which  may  be  seen  in  some 
Thoroughbreds  and  in  high-caste  Arabs."  The  gaskin 
should  be  long,  broad  and  muscular.  Differing  from  the 
draft  horse,  length  and  strength  of  gaskin  muscle  are  es- 
sential if  speed  is  to  be  secured,  for  by  these  only  can 
increase  of  motion  be  obtained  up  to  the  end  of  the  stride. 
The  stifle  joint  should  be  fairly  high,  and  face  outward 
enough  to  permit  freedom  of  motion.  The  hock  of  the  light 

4  Points  of  the  Horse,  p.  311. 


142 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


harness  horse  lacks  the  fleshy  tendency  of  the  draft  horse, 
is  leaner  and  more  sharply  denned.  This  joint,  if  superior 
speed  is  to  be  attained,  must  be  right  in  conformation  and 
position.  The  hock  should  be  straight  and  open  enough  to 
allow  the  cannon  bone  to  hold  a  vertical  line.  A  leg  of 
such  conformation  has  maximum  power  of  extension  in 
producing  high  class  speed.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  sight 
however,  to  see  race  horses  possessing  great  speed,  with 
curved  hocks — especially  pacers — that,  when  at  rest,  show 
the  cannons  placed  slightly  forward  and  beneath  the 


Fig.  76. — "The  croup  should  be  long  and  muscular,  and  tend  to  be  level 
from  between  the  hips  to  setting  on  of  tail." 

body.  Jay-eye-See  was  a  good  example  of  this  sort.  Never- 
theless, such  a  hock  does  not  admit  extreme  extension. 
This  being  so,  the  judge  should  emphasize  the  importance  of 
the  straight  hock  and  properly  placed  cannon.  The  leg 
below  the  hock  should  be  free  of  all  fleshiness,  and  show 
superior  quality.  The  hind  pasterns,  it  is  to  be  noted,  are 
somewhat  more  upright  than  those  in  front,  but  not  enough 
so  usually,  to  cause  injurious  concussion  or  affect  speed. 


JUDGING   HORSES   OF   LIGHT    1IAHXKSS    TVPK      143 

The  hind  feet,  as  explained  elsewhere  (page  103),  arc  not 
so  round  as  the  front  ones,  while  the  sides  are  straighter, 
the  heel  higher,  and  the  frog  narrower. 

The  action  of  the  light  harness  horse  is  one  of  its  most 
important  features,  for  without  excellence  in  this  regard 
he  becomes  distinctly  inferior  in  importance.  The  walk 
should  meet  all  the  requirements  of  correct  action  al- 
ready described.  Further,  the  walk  should  be  free  and 
easy,  the  feet  being  picked  up  with  snap  and  placed 


Fig.  77. — "The  action  of  the  light  harness  horse  is  one  of  its  most  im- 
portant features."     (Courtesy  The  Horse  Review.) 

back  on  the  ground  with  decision,  with  no  tendency  to 
stumble  or  drag  the  toes.  When  standing  behind  the  horse, 
the  flexing  of  the  joints  should  clearly  show  the  glisten  of 
the  shoes  as  the  horse  walks  away.  The  trot  or  pace,  how- 
ever, rather  than  the  walk,  is  the  especial  feature  valued 
in  the  light  harness  horse.  High  knee  action  is  not  sought, 
but  rather  the  long  stride,  in  which  the  forward  and  back- 
ward reaches  are  carried  to  maximum  efficiency.  In  other 
words,  extreme  extension  is  associated  with  great  speed. 
Therefore,  as  the  judge  stands  at  one  side  and  watches  the 
light  harness  horse  pass  by,  the  relationship  of  flexing  to 


144  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

extension  should  be  noted  and  emphasis  placed  on  the  lat- 
ter. The  knee  will  be  carried  high,  the  hock  will  not  show 
excess  of  motion,  and  the  feet  will  move  no  higher  above 
the  ground  than  is  necessary  to  secure  freedom  of  motion. 
"While  similar  extension  may  be  expected  in  the  pace,  the 
peculiarities  of  gait  make  it  unreasonable  for  the  judge  to 
expect  such  harmony  of  motion  as  is  usually  found  in  the 
trotter.  One  should  not  be  too  critical  of  swaying  or  lurch- 
ing, if  the  necessary  speed  is  attained.  In  commenting  on 


Fig.  78. — "The  relationship  of  flexing  to  extension  should  be  noted." 

the  light  harness  horse,  at  either  trot  or  pace,  Jordan  says, 5 
"the  average  or  standard  gait  of  either  should  result  in 
the  greatest  symmetry  of  action,  together  with  the  greatest 
economy  of  energy  and  the  greatest  speed.  It  is  true  that 
there  will  always  be  horses  that  have  their  own  way  of 
going  apparently,  and  this  may  be  due  to  a  peculiar  de- 
velopment and  conformation.  Their  defects  are  often  en- 
tirely offset  by  muscular  and  structural  compensations.  In 
all  such  cases,  however,  the  locomotion  must  be  along  lines 
of  directness  and  symmetry,  otherwise  there  would  always 

6  The    Gait    of    the    American    Trotter    and    Pacer.       Rudolph    Jordan,    Jr., 
1910,  p.  86. 


JUDGING   HORSES   OF   LIGHT   HARNESS   TYPE      145 

be  a  lack  of  balance  and  of  speed. "  If  the  gait  is  in  a 
measure  rough,  there  must  be  sufficient  balance  to  over- 
come all  irregularities,  if  maximum  speed  is  to  be 
attained. 

The  Standard-bred  horse  is  what  is  commonly  known  as 
the  American  trotter  or  pacer.  There  is  lack  of  uniformity 
of  breed  character,  such  as  is  found  in  the  Hackney,  due 
to  mating  animals  of  different  types  and  blood  lines.  Many 
people  refuse  to  recognize  the  Standard  bred  as  a  breed, 


Fig.  79.— The  Harvester  and  Ed.  Geers.     ("The  Standard  Bred  Horse.") 

although  under  present  conditions  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
gard it  as  such.  There  is  a  wide  variation  in  size  and  type, 
ranging  from  minimum  horse  height  to  16  hands  or  more, 
and  weighing  up  to  1,400  pounds.  A  height  of  15%  hands, 
and  weight  of  1,000  pounds  for  the  mare,  and  1,200  pounds 
for  the  stallion,  are  quite  approved.  The  color  varies  great- 
ly, with  bay  most  common.  Referring  to  the  gait,  Gay 


146  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

states6  that,  "the  way  of  going  is  most  characteristic. 
Whether  at  trot  or  pace,  the  gait  is  distinguished  by  the 
length  and  rapidity  of  the  individual  strides,  and  the  level, 
true,  frictionless  manner  in  which  they  are  executed.  Fur- 
thermore, the  instinct  to  trot  is  well  marked/'  He  further 
says  that,  ''Undersized  and  ill-shaped  individuals  with  ewe 
necks,  goose-rumps,  bent  or  rounded  hocks  and  tied-in  can- 
nons are  too  common."  As  this  is  the  typical  harness 
horse  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  go  into  further  descriptive 
details  than  those  outlined  in  the  preceding  pages. 

Trotting  and  pacing  standards  are  established  by  the 
American  Trotting  Register  Association.  When  an  animal 
meets  the  requirements  set  forth  below,  it  shall  be  accepted 
as  a  standard  bred  trotter  or  pacer  as  the  case  may  be : 


(A)— THE  TROTTING  STANDARD. 

progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse 
and  a  registered  standard  trotting  mare. 

2 — A  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting 
horse,  provided  his  dam  and  grandam  were  sired  by  regis- 
tered standard  trotting  horses  and  he  himself  has  a  trot- 
ting record  of  2 :30  and  is  the  sire  of  three  trotters  with 
records  of  2:30,  from  different  mares. 

3 — A  mare  whose  sire  is  a  registered  standard  trotting 
horse,  and  whose  dam  and  grandam  were  sired  by  registered 
standard  trotting  horses,  provided  she  herself  has  a  trotting 
record  of  2 :30,  or  is  the  dam  of  one  trotter  with  a  record  of 
2 :30. 

4 — A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse, 
provided  she  is  the  dam  of  two  trotters  with  records  of  2 :30. 

5 — A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse, 
provided  her  first,  second,  and  third  dams  are  each  sired 
by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse. 

•Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Live  Stock,   1914,  p.   160. 


.irnGTXG   HORSES   OF    LIGHT   HARNESS   TYPE      147 
(B)— THE  PACING  STANDARD. 

1 — The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse 
and  ?  registered  standard  paeing  mare. 

2— A  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse 
(provided  his  dam  and  grandam  were  sired  by  registered 
standard  pacing  horses,  and  he  himself  has  a  pacing  record 
of  2:25),  and  is  the  sire  of  three  pacers  with  records  of 
2 :25,  from  different  mares. 

3 — A  mare  whose  sire  is  a  registered  standard  pacing 
horse  and  whose  dam  and  grandam  were  sired  by  regis- 
tered standard  pacing  horses,  provided  she  herself  has  a 
pacing  record  of  2  -.25,  or  is  the  dam  of  one  pacer  with  a 
record  of  2:25. 

4 — A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse, 
provided  she  is  the  dam  of  two  pacers  with  records  of  2  :25. 

5 — A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse, 
provided  her  first,  second  and  third  dams  are  each  sired 
by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse. 

6 — The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse 
out  of  a  registered  standard  pacing  mare,  or  of  a  registered 
standard  pacing  horse  out  of  a  registered  standard  trottirig 
mare. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


JUDGING    HORSES    OF    HEAVY    HARNESS    TYPE. 

THE  heavy  harness  type  of  horse  is  also  commonly  re- 
ferred to  as  the  coach  or  carriage  horse.  This  type  is  more 
particularly  classified  on  the  basis  of  size,  conformation 
and  action,  rather  than  on  breed  lines.  For  example,  we 
have  certain  breeds,  such  as  the  Hackney,  French  Coach, 
and  German  Coach,  that  are  recognized  as  belonging  to 
the  heavy  harness  class.  Nevertheless  we  find  within  these 
breeds  types  that  may  be  classified  otherwise.  So  also 
among  horses  of  light  harness  breeding,  fine  examples  of 
heavy  harness  type  may  be  found.  In  fact  some  of  the 
most  beautiful  examples  of  heavy  harness  horses  have  been 


Fig.  80. — "A  horse  with  most  of  the  essentials  of  light  harness  type,  but 
with  more  weight  and  smoothness  of  conformation,  and  more  stately  knee 
and  hock  action."  (Courtesy  Mr.  S.  L.  Howe,  British  Columbia.) 

148 


HORSES  OF   HEAVY  HARNESS  TYPE  149 

of  trotting  horse  blood  lines.  Further,  within  what  is  re- 
garded as  the  heavy  harness  group,  may  be  found  sub- 
classes, based  largely  on  size,  action  and  purpose.  Thus  we 
have  the  coach,  park,  cob  and  run-about  sub-classes.  The 
general  discussion,  as  relates  to  the  scale  of  points,  will 
apply  to  the  coach  horse  as  best  representing  this  type. 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  heavy  harness  type  has  be- 
come of  minor  importance  both  in  America  and  Europe, 
owing  to  its  being  largely  supplanted  by  the  automobile, 
but  brief  consideration  will  here  be  given  this  type.  Fur- 
ther, if  one  will  picture  a  horse  with  most  of  the  essentials 
of  light  harness  type,  but  with  more  weight  and  smoothness 
of  conformation,  and  more  stately  knee  and  hock  action, 
he  will  comprehend  much  of  what  is  desired  in  the  heavy 
harness  type. 


RE  CAED  FOE  HEAVY  HAENESS  HOESE. 

Standard  of  Score  of 

SCALE    OF   POINTS  Perfect  Horse 

Score  Studied 
A— GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  12  Points: 

1.  Height,  estimated  hands Actual  hands        .  .       .  .  .... 

2.  Weight,     1,350     Ibs.    for    stallions,     1,200    Ibs.    for 

mares.     Estimated  weight Actual  weight 


3.  Form,  close,  full  made,  smooth,  symmetrical,  stylish        4 

4.  Quality,   general    refinement    and    finish    shown    in 

clearly  defined  features  of  head,  bone  and 
joints,  prominent  tendons,  and  fine  skin  and 
hair  4 

5.  Temperament,  proud,   stylish,  mannerly,  disposition 

good 4 


B— HEAD  AND  NECK,  8  Points: 

6.  Head,  in  good  proportions,   clean-cut,   straight  face 

line,  angle  lower  jaw  wide 2 

7.  Forehead,   broad,   full         1 

8.  Eyes,  prominent,  large,  clear,  bright        1 

9.  Muzzle,  fine,  lips  thin  and  even,  teeth  sound,  nostrils 

large 1 

10.  Ears,   medium  size,  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  carried 

alert 1 

11.  Neck,   long,   lofty   carriage,    high   crest,   throat-latch 

fine,  windpipe  large 2 


150  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

Standard  of  Score  of 
SCALE   OF   POINTS                                         Perfect        Horse 

Score  Studied 
C— FOREHAND,  24  Points: 

12.  Shoulders,    long,    oblique,    smooth       

13.  Arms,  short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward      .  .       .  .         1 

14.  Forearms,  long,  wide,   muscular        

15.  Knees,    straight,    wide,    deep,    clean,    strongly    sup- 

ported   

16.  Cannons,    short,    wide,    tendons   prominent,    set   well 

back       2 

17.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  tendons  set  well  back      .  .         '2 

18.  Pasterns,  long,  oblique    (angle  about  45°),   smooth, 

strong '•"• 

19.  Feet,    medium     size,    even,     round,     straight,     slope 

parallel  to  pastern;  sole  concave;  bars  strong; 
frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide  and  full,  !-:> 
length  toe;  horn  dense  and  smooth  .  .  .  .  6  .... 

20.  Legs,    properly    placed,    according    to    description    in 

draft  horse  score  card 4  .... 

D — BODY,  10  Points: 

21.  Withers,  high,  narrow,  extending  well  back   .  .       .  .  1  .... 

22.  Chest,  deep,  girth  large .  .       .  .  2  .... 

23.  Bibs,   long,  well  sprung,  close 2  .... 

24.  Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  strong 2  .... 

25.  Loin,    short,    broad,    strong         2  .... 

26.  Flanks,   deep,  full,  long  low  underline 1  .... 

E — HINDQUARTERS,  20  Points: 

27.  Hips,  wide  spaced,  smooth,  round 2 

28.  Croup,  long,  wide,  round,  smooth,  level  tendency   .  .  2  .... 

29.  Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 2  .... 

30.  Thighs,  long,  full,  muscular;   stifles  prominent,  well 

set 2  

31.  Gaskins,  long,  broad,  muscular 2  .... 

32.  Hocks,  straight,  wide,   deep,   clean-cut,  point  promi- 

nent, well  supported 5 

33.  Cannons,    short,  wide,    flat,    clean  tendons,   well  de- 

fined, set  well  back 2  .... 

34.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  tendons  well  back      .  .       .  .         2  .... 

35.  Pasterns,   long,    not   so   oblique   as    in    front    (about 

50°),    strong         3  .... 

36.  Feet,    medium     size,    even,    round,    straight;     slope 

parallel  to  pastern;  sole  concave;  bars  strong; 
frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide,  full,  1-3  length 
toe;  horn  dense,  smooth 4  .... 

37.  Legs,   properly  placed,   according  to   description   in 

draft  horse  score  card 4 

F— ACTION,  16  Points: 

38.  Walk,  straight,  snappy,  balanced 6 

39.  Trot,   in   line,   bold,   flashy,   strong  flexion    of  knees 

and  hocks,  balanced,    regular 10 

Total .    100 


HORSES  OF   HEAVY  HARNESS  TYPE 


151 


The  general  appearance  of  a  heavy  harness  horse,  win -n 
in  good  condition,  shows  smooth,  graceful  body  lines,  with 
a  general  fullness  in  all  the  parts.  The  height  should  be 
about  16  hands  and  the  weight  from  1,100  to  1,250  pounds 
for  geldings  or  mares.  Stallions  will  usually  range  from 
1,250  to  1,550,  according  to  breed.  In  quality  the  coacher 
should  be  superior,  showing  the  best  of  feet,  bone  and  hair. 
Action  of  the  very  best,  high  and  strong  at  both  knees  and 
hock,  is  important,  while  graceful  carriage  is  equally  es- 
sential. In  general  appearance  the  best  type  of  coach 


Fig.  M. — "Showing  much  of  symmotry  and  style." 

horse  shows  a  long,  arching  neck,  round  full  body,  long 
level  croup,  high  carriage  of  tail,  and  what-  is  known  as  a 
1 '  coachy ' '  or  "  trappy ' '  action.  The  coach  horse  is  expected 
to  travel  about  eight  miles  an  hour  at  a  trot.  It  is  used 
mainly  about  large  towns  or  cities^  and  attached  to  a 
brougham  or  ordinary  coach.  Coach  horses  are  more  com- 
monly driven  as  pairs  or  fours.  In  dealing  with  the  indi- 
vidual points,  one  will  notice  that  the  score  cards  of  each 
type  resemble  one  another  in  various  particulars,  both  in 
description  and  values. 


152  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  form  of  the  heavy  harness  horse  should  be  rather 
compact,  full  and  well  smoothed  over  in  all  the  parts,  and 
showing  much  of  symmetry  and  style.  There  should  be 
just  enough  of  condition  to  give  a  well  turned  effect. 

Quality  in  the  heavy  harness  horse  is  regarded  as  of 
much  importance.  General  refinement  and  finish  must  be 
apparent,  for  coarseness  is  a  serious  defect  in  this  kind  of 
horse,  and  affects  values  in  a  marked  degree.  Therefore  the 
features  of  the  head  should  be  clearly  defined,  and  the 
joints,  bones  and  tendons  show  quality. 

The  temperament  of  the  heavy  harness  horse  should 
appear  active,  yet  well  under  control,  as  seen  in  an  ani- 
mated, proud  carriage  of  head,  associated  with  the  best  of 
manners,  both  at  rest  and  in  action.  Such  a  temperament 
shows  more  restraint  than  in  the  case  of  the  light  harness 
horse,  yet  does  not  lack  in  nervous  force. 

The  neck  of  the  heavy  harness  horse  should  be  long, 
of  lofty  carriage,  with  some  arch,  and  merge  smoothly  with 
head  and  shoulders.  A  certain  degree  of  fullness  of  neck, 
trim  in  outline,  combined  with  length  and  arch,  are  quite 
characteristic  of  this  type.  A  heavy  harness  horse,  with 
such  a  neck,  should  need  little  assistance  from  the  check, 
to  present  a  bold  and  lofty  front.  A  short,  thick  neck 
should  meet  with  disfavor  on  the  part  of  the  judge. 

The  shoulders  of  the  heavy  harness  type  should  be  long, 
oblique  and  smoothly  laid  in.  Such  conformation  not  only 
plays  its  part  in  furnishing  correct  action,  but  also  meets 
the  demand  of  the  critic  for  attractive  lines.  A  rough, 
straight,  prominent  shoulder  produces  a  hard  gait  and  a 
most  undesirable  appearance. 

The  body  of  the  heavy  harness  horse  exhibits  a  round- 
ness and  fullness  of  outline  much  more  marked  than  in 
the  case  of  the  light  harness  type.  There  is  more  thickness 
of  body,  with  depressions  filled  in  and  points  smoothed  over, 
thus  giving  an  appearance  of  condition  and  finish  that  is 
very  attractive.  The  withers  are  carried  high,  and  extend 
back  well,  but  are  somewhat  thicker  and  more  heavily 


HORSES   OF   HEAVY   HARNESS   TYPE 


153 


muscled  than  with  the  light  trotter  or  pacer.  The  chest 
girth  must  be  full  and  the  flanks  low  and  well  filled  out. 
The  hindquarters  of  the  heavy  harness  horse  have 
marked  characteristics  when  of  correct  conformation.  The 
hips  are  smooth  and  neatly  placed;  the  croup  long,  wide 
and  nearly  level;  the  tail  is  attached  high,  and  is  often 
carried  with  a  stylish  arch  which  gives  a  jaunty  effect. 


Fig.  82. — "The  knees  flexed  strongly  and  the  movement  one  of  balance  and 
energy."     (Courtesy  Mr.  S.  L.  Howe,  British  Columbia.) 

While  the  depressed  croup  with  the  light  harness  type  is 
quite  common,  and  is  not  always  viewed  with  disfavor,  a 
steep  croup  with  the  heavy  harness  type  is  generally  re- 
garded as  highly  undesirable.  The  thighs  of  the  coach 
horse  possess  a  certain  degree  of  plumpness,  in  keeping  with 
the  general  smoothness  of  body,  while  the  gaskins  are  also 
relatively  thick,  in  keeping  with  the  character  of  thighs. 
Judges  should  emphasize  especially  the  importance  of  the 


154 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  83. — "While  this  method  of  movement  is  most  showy  and  stylish, 
it  is  not  serviceable  action  for  a  road  horse."  (Courtesy  Mr.  S.  L.  Howe, 
British  Columbia.) 

above  features,  as  essentials  in  conformation  of  this  type: 
The  action  of  the  heavy  harness  horse  is  of  prime  im- 
portance. The  walk  should  be  perfectly  straight,  the  feet 
carried  in  a  direct  line,  the  knees  flexed  strongly,  and  the 
movement  one  of  balance  and  energy.  At  the  trot  the  knees 
and  hocks  should  be  carried  very  high,  giving  a  gait  expres- 
sive of  much  motion.  There  is  less  extension  of  limbs  than 
with  trotter  or  pacer,  the  reach  being  shorter.  In  this  high 
action  of  the  front  legs  there  is  a  gradual,  well  balanced 
movement,  and  as  the  limbs  unfold,  the  feet  follow  as  it  were 
the  arc  of  a  circle.  Such  a  horse  is  known  as  a  high-stepper, 
and  his  action,  as  already  mentioned,  is  often  termed 
"trappy"  or  "coachy."  In  discussing  the  high-stepper  in 
action,  the  late  Prof.  John  A.  Craig  well  says,1  "The 
peculiarity  of  this  action  consists  in  lifting  the  knees  in- 
ordinately high  and  flexing  the  hocks  so  that  they  come 
close  to  the  body  and  keep  the  legs  well  under  it.  From 

1  Judging  Live  Stock,  6th  ed.,  1904,  p.  16. 


HORSES  OF   HEAVY  HARNESS   TYPE  l.V) 

the  standpoint  of  action  alone,  the  higher  the  knees  and  the 
hocks  are  lifted,  the  more  valuable  is  the  horse,  provided  the 
lype  and  other  features  more  common  are  equally  satisfac- 
tory. The  feet  must  be  thrown  forward  without  any  dish- 
ing on  either  side,  and  the  hocks  must  pass  each  other  close 
and  in  line  with  the  forward  movement.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand that  while  this  method  of  movement  is  the  most  showy 
and  stylish,  it  is  not  serviceable  action  for  a  road  horse. 
The  front  legs  soon  succumb  to  the  heavy  concussion  they 
would  be  called  upon  to  stand  under  heavy  driving.  But 
tills  action  is  sought  only  in  the  horse  that  is  used  for  drives 
about  the  city  where  style  is  paramount  to  speed  and 
stamina.  While  it  is  recognized  that  the  high-stepper 
should  have  as  many  as  possible  of  the  other  qualities  of 
excellence  in  addition  to  high  action,  yet  all  others  are  con- 
sidered of  minor  value  among  horses  of  this  class.  'All- 
around  action  only  to  be  considered,'  is  the  current  phrase 
in  the  prize  lists  that  provide  classes  for  competition 
among  the  high-steppers,  which  means  a  combination  of 
shoulder,  knee  and  hock  action."  Judges  should  carefully 
study  the  action  from  the  three  points  of  vantage,  front, 
rear  and  side,  and  place  a  proper  premium  on  all  these 


Fig.  84. — "Such  horses  are  now  infrequent,  though  they  are  still  to  be  seen 
at  the  horse  shows."     (Courtesy  The  Pictorial  News.) 


156  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS' 

phases.  Prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  automobile,  coach 
horses  with  action  of  the  above  type,  arrayed  in  heavy  har- 
ness, attached  to  a  showy  and  heavy  coach  or  carriage,  was 
a  common  sight  in  and  about  every  important  city  in 
Europe  and  America.  Such  horses  are  now  infrequent, 
though  they  are  still  to  be  seen  at  the  horse  shows  to  some 
extent,  exhibited  by  a  limited  clientage  of  interested  horse- 
men. 

The  Park  horse  is  a  coach  horse  of  the  smaller  class,  in 
which  is  found  typical  heavy  harness  conformation  and  a 
very  flashy  style  of  action.  This  sub-class  represents  the 
finest  of  the  smaller  coach  horses,  weighing  1,000  to  1,150 
pounds,  and  standing  from  15  to  15%  hands  high.  The 
action  of  the  Park  horse  should  be  extremely  high,  with  the 
best  of  balance,  and  the  limbs  moving  in  perfect  rhythm. 
Such  horses  are  uncommon,  and  in  times  past  have  been  in 
strong  demand.  Park  horses  are  commonly  driven  singly, 
or  in  pairs,  and  occasionally  in  fours.  They  are  attached 
to  light  pleasure  vehicles,  such  as  phaetons,  gigs,  park  drags 
and  Victorias. 

The  Cob  horse  is  a  small,  compact  animal,  a  sub-class  of 
heavy  harness  type,  just  a  degree  too  large  to  be  classed  as 
a  pony.  His  full,  compact  form  has  come  to  be  known  as 
"cobby,"  which  term  expresses  his  general  conformation. 
He  stands  from  14^4  to  15^4  hands  high,  and  weighs  900 
to  1,100  pounds.  The  Cob  has  a  very  smart  gait,  with  high 
action  and  a  fair  amount  of  reach.  In  England  and  "Wales 
one  sees  many  of  these  horses,  especially  "Welch  Cobs,  that 
show  great  speed  and  endurance  on  country  roads.  They 
are  commonly  hitched  singly  to  comparatively  heavy  carts, 
which  they  draw  with  apparent  ease.  They  are  also  used 
on  light  broughams  or  phaetons. 

The  Runabout  horse  combines  features  of  conformation 
of  a  small,  heavy  harness  horse,  with  more  of  the  action  of 
the  light  harness  horse.  In  fact  he  is  classed  by  some 
authorities  as  a  light  harness  horse,  and  by  others  as  a 
heavy  harness  type.  This  horse  stands  from  14%  to 


HORSES  OF   HEAVY  HARNESS   TYPE  157 

hands  high,  and  weighs  900  to  1,050  pounds.  He  is  not 
quite  so  stocky  as  the  Cob,  and  also  lacks  his  trappy  action. 
This  is  a  handy  small  driver,  adapted  to  a  variety  of  con- 
ditions, easily  handled,  and  valued  on  the  market  at  a 
modest  price. 

The  Hackney  horse  had  its  early  development  in  eastern 


Fig.  85. — Hackney  stallion,  "Gentleman  John,"  a  famous  champion.     (Photo 
by  Schreiber  &  Sons.) 

England,  especially  the  counties  of  Suffolk  and  Norfolk. 
Hackneys  are  to-day  common  in  England,  but  hardly  so 
in  America.  It  is  a  breed  that  varies  much  in  size,  ranging 
from  a  pony  to  a  good-sized  carriage  horse.  "Whether  pony 
or  full-sized  horse,  Hackney  characteristics  are  very  dis- 
tinctive. The  standard  horse  of  the  breed  stands  about 
15!/2  hands  high.  The  color  is  commonly  some  shade  of 
chestnut,  with  bays  and  browns  not  uncommon.  A  Hack- 


158 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


ney  of  good  type  has  a  well  proportioned,  attractive  head, 
of  breedy  character ;  a  long,  arching  neck ;  a  strong,  short 
back  and  well  turned  rib ;  long,  wide,  level  croup,  and  full, 
rounded  thighs;  short,  clean-cut  legs  and  good  feet.  The 
Hackney  is  famous  for  his  high-stepping  gait,  which  is 
often  very  pronounced,  the  flexing  of  knee  and  hock  being 
carried  to  an  extreme.  The  popularity  of  this  heavy  har- 
ness horse  is  due  to  its  flash  action.  A  high  carriage  of  the 
knee,  and  short  extension  of  the  leg  results  in  an  abrupt- 
ness of  concussion  that  is  anything  but  the  poetry  of  mo- 
tion, and  punishes  the  feet  in  an  undesirable  degree. 


Fig.  86. — French  Coach  stallion,  "Decorateur."     (Photo   by  E.  H.  Mickle.) 

The  French  Coach  horse  originated  in  France,  where  it 
is  known  as  the  Demi-Sang  (Half -Blood).  French  Coach 
horses  have  gone  much  out  of  favor  in  America,  and  but 
few  are  to  be  seen  in  this  country.  They  are  usually  bay, 
brown  or  chestnut,  although  there  are  other  colors.  They 


HORSES  OF   II 


HARNESS   TYPE 


159 


stand  about  16  hands  high  and  weigh  from  1,200  to  1,400 
pounds.  These  horses  are  much  like  other  typical  carriage; 
horses  in  style  and  appearance,  though  their  action  is  not 
so  high  and  short  as  the  Hackney. 


Fig.  87. — German  Coach  Horse.      (Courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 

The  German  Coach  horse  originated  in  northwestern 
Germany,  in  the  Oldenburg  and  Hanover  provinces.  This 
is  the  largest  of  the  heavy  harness  breeds,  standing  from 
16  to  16i/o  hands,  and  the  stallions  frequently  weighing 
about  1,500  pounds.  Bay,  brown,  or  black  are  the  common 
colors,  especially  the  two  former.  This  is  a  breed  of  some 
grossness,  being  heavy  of  bone  and  joint,  and  lacking  in 
action,  as  compared  with  the  Hackney.  Horses  of  this 
breed  are  not  popular  in  America. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

JUDGING  THE  SADDLE  TYPE  OF  HORSE. 

Type  and  character  with  the  saddle  horse  varies  con- 
siderably according  to  breeding.  The  Thoroughbred  is  the 
oldest  pure  bred  saddle  horse  other  than  the  Arab,  and 
while  comparatively  little  used  to-day  in  America,  it  is  very 
common  in  certain  European  countries,  especially  Great 
Britain.  A  class  of  horses,  known  as  Hunters,  quite  vari- 
able in  type  and  breeding,  are  also  extensively  used  for  the 
saddle  in  Europe.  In  fact  light  horses  are  commonly  used 
for  the  saddle  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  that  vary 
greatly  in  ancestry,  and  more  or  less  in  type.  So  it  may 
be  assumed  that  there  is  not  the  uniformity  of  type  with 
the  saddle  horse  that  some  might  think.  In  the  United 
States  a  distinct  breed,  known  as  the  American  Saddle  horse, 
with  a  strong  foundation  of  Thoroughbred  blood,  has  been 
developed  and  improved  to  a  high  standard  of  excellence. 
The  widespread  distribution  of  this  breed  in  America,  its 
pre-eminence  for  the  saddle,  and  its  well  established  type, 
justifies  using  it  as  the  standard  for  special  study  of  saddle 
horse  conformation. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  SADDLE  HORSE  OF  AMERICAN  TYPE. 

Standard  of   Score  of 
SCALE    OF   POINTS  Perfect        Horse 

Score        Studied 
A — GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  12  Points: 

1.  Height,  Estimated  hands Actual  hands        .  .       .  .  .... 

2.  Weight,  1,050  to  1,150  pounds  

3.  Form,  close  but  not  full  made,  deep  but  not  broad 

symmetrical 

4.  Quality,  bone  clean,  dense,  fine,  yet  indicating  sub 

stance;    tendons    and    joints    sharply    defined 


hide  and  hair  fine ;  general  refinement,  finish . 
5.    Temperament,  active,  disposition  good,  intelligent. 

160 


THE  SADDLE  TYPE  OF  HOHSK         161 

Standard  of  Score  of 

SCALE   OP   POINTS  Perfect        Horse- 

Score         Studied 
B — HEAD  AND  NECK,  8  Points: 

6.  Head,   size  and  dimensions  in  proportion,   clear-cut 

features,  straight  face  line,  wide  angle  in  lower 

jaw 1  .... 

7.  Forehead,  broad,  full 1  .... 

8.  Eyes,  prominent  orbit,  large,  full,  bright,  clear,  lid 

thin,  even  curvature 1  .... 

9.  Muzzle,  fine,   nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  trim,  even    .  .         1  .... 

10.  Ears,   medium   si/c,   pointed,   set   close,   carried  alert        1  .... 

11.  Neck  long,  simple,  well  crested,  not  carried  too  high, 

throttle  well  cut  out,  head  well  set  on      .  .       .  .        3  .... 

C— FOREHAND,  22  Points: 

12.  Shoulders,  very  long,  sloping  yet  muscular      .  .       .  .  3  .... 

13.  Arms,  short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward   .  .       .  .  1  .... 

14.  Forearms,  long,  broad,  muscular        1  .... 

15.  Knees,    straight,   wide,   deep,    strongly   supported    .  .  2  .... 

16.  Cannons,  short,  broad,  flat;  tendons  sharply  defined, 

set  well  back 2  .... 

17.  Fetlocks    wide;    tendons    well    back,    straight,    well 

supported .... 

18.  Pasterns,   long,    oblique    (45°),   smooth,    strong      ..         2  .... 

19.  Feet,   large,   round,   uniform,   straight,    slope  of  wall 

parallel  to  slope  of  pastern;  sole  concave;  bars 
strong;  frog  large,  elastic;  heels  wide,  full,  1-3 
height  length  of  toe;  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark 
color 5  .... 

20.  Legs,   properly   placed,   according  to    description   in 

draft  horse  score  card        4  .... 

D — BODY,  12  Points: 

21.  Withers,    high,    muscular,    well   finished    at   top,    ex- 

tending well  into  back        3  .... 

22.  Chest,  medium  width,   deep         2  .... 

23.  Bibs,  well  sprung,  long,  close 2  .... 

24.  Back,   short,    straight,    strong,   broad         2  .... 

25.  Loin,   short,    broad,   muscular,   strongly   coupled      .  .  2  .... 

26.  Flanks,  deep,  full,  long,  low  underline 1 

E— HINDQUARTERS,   31  Points: 

27.  Hips,  broad,  round,  smooth        2 

28.  Croup,   long,   level,    round,   smooth 2  .... 

29.  Tail,  set  high,  well  carried        2  .... 

30.  Thighs,   full,  muscular        2  .... 

31.  Stifles,  broad,  full,  muscular 2  .... 

32.  Gaskins,    broad,    muscular. 2  .... 

33.  Hocks,  straight,  wide,  point  prominent,   deep,  clean- 

cut,   smooth,   well   supported      .  .         5  .... 

34.  Cannons,  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  defined, 

set  well   back .... 

35.  Fetlocks,    wide,    tendons    well    back,    straight,    well 

supported 2  .... 

36.  Pasterns,   long,   oblique    (50°),   smooth,   strong      ..        2  .... 


162 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


SCALE   OP   POINTS 


37.     Feet,    not   quite 


Standard  of 
Perfect 
Score 
so   large   as   in   front,    not    quite   so 


Score  of 
Horse 
Studied 


round,   otherwise   comparable     ........ 

,'?8.    Legs,    properly   placed,    according   to    description   in 

draft  horse  score  card        .......... 

'—ACTION,  15  Points: 
;!9.     Walk,   rapid,    flat   footed,    in   line       ........ 

•  10.     Trot,  free,  springy,  square;  going  well  off  hocks;  not 

extreme  knee  fold        ............ 

41.    Canter,  slow,  collected,   either  lead,  no  cross  canter 


Total     .  .    100 


Fig.  88. — "Stylish  carriage  is  also  highly  characteristic  of  this  type." 
{From  photograph  by  courtesy  American  Breeder.) 

A  study  of  the  saddle  horse  scale  of  points,1  shows  a.  very 
close  relationship  to  that  for  the  light  harness  horse.  The 
differences  are  slight,  and  are  not  entirely  of  conformation. 
In  size  and  height  there  is  no  essential  difference.  In  form 
the  saddle  horse  is  not  so  angular  as  the  light  harness  horse, 
being  smoother  turned  and  more  symmetrical.  Quality  is 
an  important  feature  of  the  saddler,  more  emphasis  being 
assigned  to  it  than  with  other  light  types  of  horses.  Stylish 

1  Adapted  from  Principles  and  Practices  of  Live  Stock  Judging  Carl  W 
Gay,  1914,  p.  72. 


THE  SADDLE  TYPE  OF  HORSE         163 

carriage  is  also  highly  characteristic  of  this  type.  Shows 
of  gaited  saddlers  in  Kentucky  and  Missouri,  where  large 
classes  come  together,  are  exhibitions  of  quality,  style  and 
finish  beyond  compare. 

The  neck  is  a  rather  distinctive  feature,  being  long, 
supple  and  slightly  arched,  and  carried  neither  high  nor  low, 
yet  with  distinct  grace.  A  sensitive  relationship  exists 
between  the  mouth,  neck  and  reins.  A  long,  supple  neck 
between  the  rider's  reins,  furnishes  in  the  process  of  guid- 
ance a  more  flexible  connecting  link  between  mouth  and 
hand,  than  a  short,  stiff  neck.  Three  points  are  given  to 
the  neck  of  the  saddle  horse  as  compared  with  two  for  the 
light  harness  horse. 

The  shoulders  of  the  saddle  horse  should  be  long  and 
sloping,  yet  muscular.  The  long,  oblique  shoulder  is  a 
necessity,  to  secure  an  easy  gait,  and  saddle  horse  authori- 
ties emphasize  its  importance,  and  three  points  instead  of 
two,  as  with  the  light  harness  type,  are  assigned  this  part 
in  the  scale  of  points. 

The  body  of  the  saddle  horse  should  be  moderately  short, 
deep  and  not  too  wide.  It  should  be  nicely  turned, 
strongly  carried,  and  free  of  sag  of  back  and  weakness  of 
loins.  There  has  been  some  tendency  with  the  American 
saddle  horse  to  a  lower  carriage  of  back  than  is  altogether 
desirable.  A  neat  yet  not  wide  arch  of  rib  is  important  in 
a  good  saddle  back,  but  sag  of  back  is  quite  undesirable 
inasmuch  as  this  part  of  the  horse  must  be  able  to  sustain 
a  weight  of  at  least  160  pounds. 

The  croup  of  the  saddle  horse  is  one  of  its  noteworthy 
features.  As  expressed  in  the  scale  of  points,  it  should  be 
long,  level,  round  and  smooth.  The  long,  strong  muscling 
of  the  hindquarters  bespeaks  a  well  supported  back,  and 
is  related  to  a  leg  development  behind  that  indicates  power- 
ful action,  and  the  capacity  to  get  over  the  ground  with 
ease.  A  side  view  shows  the  croup  carried  out  with  slight 
downward  curve,  or  having  what  is  often  termed  a  level 
carriage.  From  the  rear  the  croup  is  neatly  rounded  over 


164 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


the  sides,  being  free 
of  the  squareness 
seen  on  draft 
horses.  The  judge 
should  place  a 
proper  emphasis  on 
the  conformation 
of  the  croup. 

The  tail  of  the 
saddle  horse  is  at- 
tached and  carried 
high  in  the  case  of 
the  American  type, 
it  being  one  of  the 
attractive  features 
of  the  breed.  While 
the  docked  saddle 
horse  in  Europe 
is  a  common  sight, 
length  of  tail  is 


Fig.  89. — "In  the  American  Saddle  horse  a 
full  length  of  tail  is  regarded  as  an  attraction." 
(From  photo  by  courtesy  American  Breeder.) 


T. 


Fig.  90.— "The  gaited  sa 
sesses  five  different  gaits." 
Breeder.) 


in  the  American  saddle  horse  a  full 
regarded  as  an  attraction  rather  than 
otherwise.  Carried 
with  a  slight  arch 
at  its  setting,  it 
hangs  behind  in 
what  is  known  as 
( i  flowing ' '  form,  an 
evidence  of  breed- 
ing, and  an  attrac- 
tive part  of  a  beau- 
tiful horse. 

The  action  of  the 
saddle  horse  is,  in 
truth,  its  most  im- 
p  or  tan  t  feature. 
The  American  sad- 
dle horse  is  also  re- 
ferred to  sometimes 


(Courtesy  American 


THE    SADDLE    TYPE    OF    HORSE 


165 


as  the  "gaited  saddle  horse/'  for  the  reason  that 
it  possesses  five  different  gaits,  namely:  (a)  walk; 
(b)  running  walk  or  fox  trot,  or  slow  pace;  (c)  trot; 
(d)  canter;  (e)  rack.  These  several  gaits  have  already 
been  described  on  pages  48-60.  There  are  some  special 
features  valued  in  this  type  of  saddle  horse.  The  action 
should  be  frank  and  easy,  with  a  minimum  of  friction  con- 
nected with  it.  A 
superior  horse  of 
this  type  that  is 
well  trained,  will 
not  mix  his  gaits, 
but  will  keep  them 
properly  separated. 
On  signal  from  his 
rider  he  changes 
from  one  gait  to 
another,  otherwise 
remaining  con- 
stant. A  graceful, 
easy,  sure  move- 
ment of  the  limbs, 
with  not  too  much 
knee  or  hock  action 
is  desired,  with  a 
certain  springy  character  universally  admired  in  this 
horse.  Nevertheless,  one  sees  saddlers  that  possess  con- 
siderable action,  that  as  combination  horses  under 
saddle  or  in  harness  make  an  attractive  show.  How- 
ever, the  high-stepping  character  of  the  Hackney  is 
but  of  place  here.  The  official  definition2  of  the  five- 
gaited  horse,  specifies  that  he  '  *  should  go  the  running  walk, 
fox  trot  or  slow  pace,  smoothly  and  equal  to  six  miles  an 
hour;  rack  easily  without  being  forced,  with  speed  equal 
to  twelve  miles  an  hour,  must  stand  quietly,  back  readily, 

2  Show  Ring  Classification.     American  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'   Association, 
Adopted  April,    1910. 


Fig.  91. — "Not  too  much  knee  or  hock  action  is 
desired."      (Courtesy   American   Breeder.) 


166 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  92. — "One  sees  saddlers  that  possess  consid- 
erable action."    (Courtesy  American  Breeder.) 


and  canter.  This 
horse  lacks  the  uni- 
formity of  breed- 
ing of  the  five- 
gaited  horse,  for 
he  may  be  of 
Thoroughbred, 
Hunter,  or  Ameri- 
can saddle  horse 
ancestry.  He  may 
closely  resemble  the 
five-gaited  in  type, 
or  vary  consider- 
ably from  it.  Ae- 
cording  to  the 
American  Saddle 
Horse  Breeders ' 
Association,  the 
three-gaited  horse 
should  g  o  plain 


and  lead  with  either 
foot  in  a  canter 
from  a  halt."  Stu- 
dents of  the  saddle 
horse  are  also  offi- 
c  i  a  1 1  y  informed 
that  "high  rate  of 
speed  and  racing 
is  forbidden." 

The  three-gaited 
saddle  horse,  also 
known  as  the 
"  plain  -  gaited 
horse,"  possesses 
but  three  gaits, 
namely,  walk,  trot 


Fig.  93. — American  Saddle  horse  "Edna  Mae," 
a  noted  show  mare.  Mr.  Matt  S.  Cohen  up. 
(Courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 


THE   SADDLE   TYPE   OF   HORSE  167 

walk,  briskly  and  with  speed  equal  to  four  miles  an 
hour;  canter  reasonably  high  and  gentle,  trot  steadily, 
straight  and  true;  action  enough  to  be  attractive;  well 
balanced  and  with  speed  equal  to  twelve  miles  an 
hour." 

The  American  Saddle  Horse  is  a  product  resulting  orig- 
inally from  the  use  of  Thoroughbred  stallions  on  the  com- 
mon mares  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  From  this  early 
ancestry,  dating  back  to  the  importation  in  1832  of  the 
Thoroughbred  horse  Hedgeford,  has  been  evolved  the 
American  saddle  horse  breed.  Hedgeford  sired  a  stallion 
named  Denmark,  foaled  in  1839,  that  is  officially  credited 
with  being  the  foundation  sire  of  this  breed.  The  American 
saddle  horse  of  standard  character  stands  about  15iX>  hands 
high,  and  weighs  from  950  to  1,050  pounds.  His  color  is 
commonly  bay,  brown  or  chestnut.  This  horse  has  been 
bred  to  a  degree  that  exhibits  much  style  and  finish.  The 
head  is  refined  in  feature  and  shows  much  character ;  the 
neck  is  long  and  supple  and  beautifully  arched;  the  body 
moderately  long,  round,  and  well  turned;  the  croup  long 
and  level;  the  tail  set  high  and  proudly  carried.  The  legs 
show  superior  bone  and  muscling,  and  the  pasterns  are 
long  and  springy.  One  finds  in  this  horse  at  his  best,  a 
combination  of  symmetry  and  balance  of  form,  and  grace- 
ful, easy  action  of  a  very  high  degree.. 

The  Thoroughbred  horse  originated  in  England.  It  is 
not  only  the  oldest  of  British  breeds,  but  the  purest  in 
ancestry.  For  these  reasons  the  Thoroughbred  reproduces 
with  unusual  uniformity.  The  more  common  colors  are 
bay,  brown  and  chestnut,  but  black,  gray  and  roan  also 
occur.  The  height  is  not  remarkably  variable,  151/2  hands 
meeting  with  favor.  While  the  weight  is  variable,  between 
900  and  1,050  pounds  is  a  satisfactory  range.  In  conforma- 
tion we  find  the  essential  features  of  the  light  harness  horse, 
but  with  certain  characteristics  distinctive  of  this  breed. 
The  head  should  be  lean  and  fine,  and  very  breedy  in  char- 
acter ;  the  neck  is  usually  long  and  thin ;  the  shoulders  are 


168 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


very  long  and  slope  well  into  the  back;  the  croup  is  long 
and  wide  and  more  level  than  with  the  trotter  or  pacer. 
The  foreleg  should  be  muscular  and  strong  in  arm  and 
long  and  wide  in  the  forearm.  The  hindquarter  of  the 
Thoroughbred  is  long,  level,  strongly  muscled  and  exhibits 
great  driving  power.  The  pasterns  are  long  and  springy, 
and  the  bone  and  feet  of  excellent  texture.  Compared  with 


Fig.  1)4. — A  Thoroughbred  horse,  champion  at  Virginia   State  Fair. 

the  American  trotter,  the  Thoroughbred  is  longer  of  neck, 
body  and  limbs,  has  a  straighter  carriage  of  hind  legs, 
stands  somewhat  higher  behind,  and  displays  a  greater 
uniformity  of  breed  character  and  quality.  Aside  from  a 
walk,  his  natural  gait  is  a  gallop,  in  which  he  excels  all 
other  horses.  He  also  has  great  capacity  for  high  jumping. 
In  temperament  the  Thoroughbred  is  very  nervous  and 


THE   SADDLE   TYPE   OF   HORSE  169 

mettlesome,  oftentimes  being  impetuous  to  a  degree  and 
hard  to  control.  Among  the  more  common  deficiencies  of 
the  breed  is  too  slack  and  rangy  a  form,  and  too  great  length 
of  leg,  resulting  in  what  is  known  as  a  "weed"  in  Great 
Britain. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

PONY  TYPES. 

PONIES  vary  greatly  in  conformation,  yet  the  fact  that 
they  are  diminutive  horses,  classifies  them  as  ponies,  any- 
thing under  1414  hands  (57  inches)  being  usually  regarded 
as  such.  There  are  many  breeds  of  ponies,  but  of  those 
known  in  America  the  Shetland  is  the  only  one  at  all  com- 
mon among  the  so-called  improved  breeds.  This,  in  its 
best  form,  is  a  miniature  heavy  harness  horse  with  a  strong 
tendency  to  draft  character.  The  Welch  and  Hackney 
ponies  are  of  the  heavy  harness  type,  with  very  pronounced 
high  action.  The  Arabian  is  a  pony  of  the  American  saddle 
horse  type,  without  its  extreme  characteristics. 

The  judging  of  the  Shetland  pony  is  usually  based  on 
the  standard  or  scale  of  points  of  the  American  Shetland 
Pony  Club,  which  is  as  follows: 

SCALE  OF  POINTS   FOB  SHETLAND  PONY. 

\                                                                                                                                                      Points 
^        Constitution   indicated   by    general   healthy    appearance,    perfect    respira- 
tion, brightness  of  eyes 10 

Size — Ponies  over  four  years  old,  42  inches  and  under  in  height;  two 
points  to  be  deducted  for  every  inch  over  42  inches  up  to  46  inches, 
fractional  portions  to  count  as  full  inches 25 

Head,  symmetrical,  rather  small  and  fine,  wide  between  eyes,  ears  short 

and  erect          10 

Body — Barrel    well    rounded,    back    short    and    level,    deep    chested,    good 

breast,   compact,    "pony  build" 10 

Legs,  muscular,  flat  boned,  hind  legs  not  cow-hocked  or  too  crooked      .  .      25 

Mane  and  tail — Foretop,  mane  and  tail  heavy 10 

Feet,    good       10 

Total        100 

170 


PONY  TYPES  171 

This  score  card  is  not  ideal  and  needs  revising,  but  thus 
far  it  is  the  only  official  standard  in  use.  It  will  be  noted 
that  emphasis  is  placed  on  size  and  legs,  each  of  these  fea- 
tures scoring  twenty-five  points.  Size  is  certainly  a  very 
important  factor,  and  as  a  rule  the  smaller  sized  pony 
meets  with  most  approval.  The  legs  of  the  pony  should  be 
muscular  and  assume  positions  to  conform  to  the  standard 
expressed  in  the  scale  of  points  of  the  draft  horse.  Judges 
should  discriminate  especially  against  crooked  hocks.  A 
neatly  turned  foot,  of  good  size,  wide  and  high  at  the  heel 
is  desirable.  Quality  should  be  emphasized  by  the  Shet- 
land pony  judge,  and  an  abundance  of  fine  hair  should 
cover  the  body.  In  cool  weather  this  coat  will  be  shaggy 
and  rough  in  appearance,  a  characteristic  of  the  Shetland. 
The  thick,  heavy  coat  of  hair  is  a  great  protection  to  this 
pony  during  the  wintry  months. 

The  modern  type  of  Shetland  pony  differs  somewhat 
from  that  of  years  ago,  when  drafty  conformation  was 
carried  to  an  extreme.  Now  more  real  grace  of-  form, 
quality  and  action  is  demanded.  Referring  to  the  subject 
of  type,  a  well-known  British  authority  thus  discusses  the 
Shetland:1  "At  present,  things  are  somewhat  in  a  transi- 
tion stage,  which  causes  confusion  in  the  minds  of  some 
people  as  to  what  is  the  correct  type.  "When  the  show 
career  of  the  sheltie  first  commenced,  the  best  paying  de- 
mand was  undoubtedly  for  the  pits,  and  the  aim  was  to  get 
the  biggest  possible  bulk  as  near  the  ground  as  possible, 
while  symmetry  and  true  action  had  to  take  a  secondary 
place.  Fortunately  for  the  breed,  however,  the  advent  of 
the  foreign  demand  has  created  a  higher  standard.  Beauty 
of  shape  and  smart,  well  carried  head  counts  for  more  than 
it  used  to,  and  true,  close  and  springy  action  is  deemed 
essential.  Occasionally,  however,  when  a  judge  full  of  the 
old  traditions  officiates,  the  prizes  will  go  to  ponies  with 
huge  bodies  on  abnormally  short  legs,  suggestive  of  moles, 

1  Ponies  and  All  About  Them.     Frank  T.  Barton,  London,   1911,  p.  218. 


172 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  95. — "The  modern  type  of  Shetland  Pony  differs  somewhat  from  that  of 
years  ago,  when  drafty  conformation  was  carried  to  an  extreme." 


and  no  doubt  most  valuable  to  drag  a  hutch  in  the  low 
galleries  of  a  coal  mine,  but  absolutely  unsuited  for  a 
child's  saddle  pony.  At  the  very  next  show,  perhaps^  the 
opposite  type  gets  the  preference,  which  naturally  creates 
confusion  in  the  minds  of  those  who  are  not  fully  con- 
versant with  the  show  history  of  the  breed."  Judges  of 
Shetlands  should  take  note  of  the  fact  that  good  form 
requires  that  they  be  shown  in  full  growth  of  hair  on 
body,  mane  and  foretop,  and  with  natural  length  of  tail. 
The  Shetland  is  used  both  under  saddle,  and  in  harness 
hitched  to  pony  cart  or  appropriate  four-wheeled  vehicle. 
The  Welch  pony  type  varies  to  a  considerable  degree. 
So  much  so  that  the  Welch  Pony  and  Cob  Society,  in  order 


PONY  TYPES 


173 


to  set  at  rest  more  or  less  controversy  on  this  subject,  classi- 
fied these  ponies  into  four  groups  or  sections,  A,  B,  C,  D. 
In  section  A,  part  one,  ponies  must  not  exceed  12  hands 
high,  show  Thoroughbred  type  and  not  be  docked  or  have 
mane  or  foretop  close  cut,  while  in  part  two,  they  may 
range  up  to  121/2  hands,  and  be  more  " cobby"  of  conforma- 
tion, and  be  docked  or  hog-maned.  In  section  B  the  rules 
allow  heights  from  12y±  hands  to  131/4  hands ;  in  section  C 
from  1314  to  141/0  hands,  while  in  D  there  is  no  height 
limit.  The  larger  animals  of  this  breed  standing  141/2 
hands  or  more,  are  known  as  cobs.  Barton  has  attempted 
to  emphasize  some  of  the  more  essential  features  of  a 
"typical  Welch  pony/'  which  are  as  follows:  A  small, 
clean-cut  head,  wide  between  the  eyes,  and  muzzle  tapering 
and  free  from  bluntness.  Small,  well  placed  ears,  thin  in 
their  cartilage,  and  carried  close  and  erect,  together  with 
full  eyes,  constitute  points  of  beauty  in  the  region  of  the 


Fig.  96.— A  Welsh  pony. 


174 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


head.  The  set-on  and  carriage  of  the  head  is  equally  im- 
portant. The  Thoroughbred  type  of  neck  is  better  than 
one  too  short  or  too  thick.  A  short  coupled,  strong  back 
and  loins,  with  long,  fine,  compact  quarters,  a  deep  girtli 
and  fine  shoulders,  are  requisite  features.  Particular  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  the  limbs,  and  above  all  to  the 

action.  The  latter 
should  be  quick, 
free  and  straight 
from  the  shoulder, 
the  knees  and  hocks 
well  flexed  with 
straight  and  pow- 
erful leverage  of 
the  hocks  well  un- 
der the  body.  There 
should  be  such 
bending  of  the 
knees  and  hocks 
as  will  not  sacri- 
fice pace  and 
power. 

The  Hackney  pony  type  is  distinctly  a  small  heavy 
harness  horse,  of  pure  Hackney  ancestry,  but  standing  141^ 
or  less  hands  high.  The  most  exacting  standards  of  heavy 
horse  conformation  are  required  of  this  pony,  that  has  been 
termed  an  "equine  bantam."  In  the  case  of  this  type, 
style  and  action  are  given  great  prominence,  surpassing 
that  of  all  other  ponies.  The  high,  trappy  gait  is  found 
here  in  the  extreme,  and  judges  should  strongly  emphasize 
its  importance,  both  at  walk  and  trot.  The  action  should 
be  true  and  rhythmical,  the  knees  and  hocks  carried  high, 
but  the  limbs  extended  in  only  moderate  degree,  without  the 
long  reach  associated  with  the  greatest  speed.  Good  man- 
ners are  an  important  qualification  of  the  Hackney  pony, 
and  should  be  considered  by  the  judge.  Hackney  ponies 
are  universally  shown  docked. 


Fig.  97. — "The  Hackney  pony  type  is  distinctly  a 
small,  heavy  harness  horse." 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

JUDGING  JACKS  AND  JENNETS. 

THE  jack  is  the  male  of  the  ass,  and  the  jennet  is  the 
female.  It  cannot  be  said  that  they  are  common  in  America, 
excepting  in  certain  sections,  where  the  jack  rather  than 
the  jennet  is  especially  valued.  The  jack  is  used  for  breed- 
ing to  mares,  the  resulting  progeny  of  which  is  the  mule. 
There  is  no  special  object  in  mating  jack  to  jennet  in 
America,  except  it  be  with  the  final  purpose  of  producing 
high  class  jacks  to  be  used  in  producing  mules.  The  use 
of  the  jack  in  this  connection  is  rather  widespread,  but  is 
more  especially  limited  to  the  southern  United  States.  Mis- 
souri, Kentucky  and  Tennessee  have  special  distinction  for 
the  production  of  jacks,  jennets  and  mules. 

SCORE   CARD   FOR   THE  JACK,   CATALONIAN   OR 
AMERICAN  TYPE. 

Standard  of   Score  of 
SCALE   OF   POINTS  Perfect         Jack 

Score        Studied 
A— GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  18  Points; 

1.  Height,  at  maturity,  15  to  16  hands 4 

2.  Weight,   at  maturity,   1,050  to  1,150  pounds    .  .       .  .         4 

3.  Form,  broad,  deep,  symmetrical,  smooth 4  .... 

4.  Quality,  bone  large,  clean,  strong;  hair  fine,  abundant       4 

5.  Temperament,  active ;   disposition  good 2  .... 

B— HEAD  AND  NECK,  11  Points: 

6.  Head,    well    proportioned,     strong    of    frame,    nose 

slightly  Roman     .  .      , 4 

7.  Forehead,  broad,  full 1  .... 

8.  Eyes,  of  good  size,  prominent,  clear 1 

9.  Muzzle,  broad,  yet  fine  and  lips  thin  and  even ;  nos- 

trils large 1 

10.  Ears,   long    (33   inches  or  more   between  tips   at   ma- 

turity), pointed,  not  too  wide  set  apart,  alert      .  .         2 

11.  Neck,   long,   muscled,   throat-latch   defined,   head  well 

set  on 2  .... 

175 


176  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

Standard  of  Score  of 

SCALE    OF    POINTS                                           Perfect  Jack 

Scored  Studied 
C— FOREHAND,  21  Points: 

12.  Shoulders,   oblique,    smooth        2  .... 

13.  Arms,  short,  wide,  muscular,  well  set        2  .... 

14.  Forearm,  long,   wide,  heavily  muscled 2  .... 

15.  Knees,  wide,  deep,  strong,  well  supported        .  .       .  .         2  .... 

16.  Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  defined  .  .       .  .        2  .... 

17.  Fetlocks,  wide,   straight,   clean 1  .... 

18.  Pasterns,  sloping  (about  45°),  strong,  clean   .  .       .  .         2  .... 

19.  Feet,  large,   round,   uniform;    slope   of  wall  parallel 

to  slope  pastern;  sole  concave;  bars  strong; 
frog  prominent,  elastic ;  heel  wide,  high ;  horn 
dense 8  .... 

D — BODY,  13  Points: 

20.  Withers,  well  defined,  smooth,  muscular 2 

21.  Chest,  wide,  deep,  girth  large 3 

22.  Ribs,  well  sprung,  long,  close 3 

23.  Back,  short,  well  carried,  muscular 2 

24.  Loin,  short,  wide,  thickly  muscled 2 

25.  Flanks,  low,   well  filled  out;   underline  l^ng,   low       ..  1 

E— HINDQUARTERS,  27  Points: 

26.  Hips,  smooth,  well  covered 

27.  Croup,  Iciig,  wide,   not  steep,  muscular 3 

28.  Thighs,  thick,  deep,  muscular,  .not  too  close   .  .       .  .         '•> 

29.  Stifles,  wide,  well  muscled,  prominent,  clean.  ...         2 

30.  Gaskins,  long,  wide,  muscular 3 

31.  Hocks,    straight,    wide,    large,    strong,    not     meaty, 

clean  cut,  well  set        3 

32.  Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  well  d;v1n,d      .  . 

33.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 1 

34.  Pasterns,  sloping  (about  50°),  straight,  clean,  show- 

ing no   knuckling         2 

35.  Feet,    medium    size,    uniform,    straight,    slope    wall 

parallel  to  slope  pastern;  sole  concave;  bars 
strong ;  frog  prominent,  elastic ;  heel  wide, 
high ;  horn  dense,  smooth 6 

F— ACTION,  10  Points: 

36.  Walk,  straight,  stride  long,  elastic ,"> 

37.  Trot,   straight,   long,  free,  regular,   snappy      ....         5 


Total  points 100  .... 

The  general  appearance  of  the  jack  largely  depends  upon 
the  breed  and  ancestry.  There  are  considerable  variations 
in  size,  color  and  other  characteristics  that  breeders  value. 
There  has  been  in  the  past  much  lack  of  uniformity  in  the 
jacks  used  by  American  breeders,  and  many  inferior  indi- 
viduals have  been  in  service.  In  general,  the  jack  should 
have  a  conformation  very  closely  related  to  that  of  the 
horse,  excepting  in  certain  details.  The  striking  differ- 


JUDGING  JACKS  AND  JENNETS  177 


Fig.  98. — "In  general  the  jack  should  have  a  conformation  very  closely 
related  to  that  of  the  horse."  Show  jack,  Dr.  Pettus,  weighing  1,100  Ibs. 
(Photo  by  courtesy  Kentucky  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

ences  are  seen  in  the  large  head  and  prominent,  long  ears ; 
in  the  mane  and  tail  lacking  in  hair ;  in  the  narrow,  short 
hindquarters,  and  in  the  long,  coarse  hair  covering  the 
body.  To  be  considered  more  in  detail,  from  the  judges 
point  of  view,  the  following  factors  are  to  be  kept  in  mind : 

The  height  of  the  jack  should  range  from  15  to  16  hands, 
with  15VL>  hands  a  popular  height.  At  one  time  there  was 
greater  demand  for  tall  jacks  than  at  present.  The  tall 
jack  is  too  likely  to  sire  a  leggy  mule. 

The  weight  of  the  jack  should  range  at  maturity  from 
900  to  1,200  pounds,  with  1,050  to  1,150  as  nearest  ideal. 
The  above  heights  and  weights  combine  to  produce  a  size, 


178 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


which  if  mated  to  draft  mares  will  produce  the  most  desir- 
able type  of  draft  mule.  Referring  to  fashioning  the  Ameri- 
can jack,  Anderson  of  Kentucky  calls  attention  1  to  the  fact 
that  the  small  mule  is  not  demanded  excepting  to  work  in 
the  mines.  The  trade  demands  mules  of  size,  well  formed, 
with  good  flesh  and  coat.  The  -jacks  capable  of  siring  such 
are  from  15  to  16  hands  in  height  and  weigh  from  1,000 
to  1,150  pounds. 

The  form  of  the  jack  should 
be  broad,  deep,  symmetrical 
and  smooth.  Commenting  on 
the  form  as  compared  with  that 
of  the  horse,  Curtis  of  North 
Carolina,2  states  that  "the 
shoulders  are  not  as  sloping, 
the  ribs  usually  not  as  well 
sprung,  the  hindquarters  not 
as  well  developed  or  muscled, 
and  there  is  not  as  much 
definition,  quality  or  refine- 
ment in  the  bones  and  joints. 
There  is  a  general  lack  of 
smoothness  and  co-ordination 
of  parts,  although  this  is  usu- 
ally more  apparent  in  the 
head,  neck  and  hindquar- 
ters. ' '  The  judge  should  seek 
for  as  much  balance  of  form 

as  possible,  without  wide  variation  from  good  conformation 
in  any  part. 

Quality  in  the  jack  is  of  prime  importance,  and  more 
and  more  stress  is  laid  on  the  same.  The  bone  should  be 
large,  but  clean  and  strong.  The  hair  covering  should  be 
abundant  and  fine.  The  French  breeders  of  the  Poitou 
jack  make  much  of  a  long,  thick,  fine  coat  of  hair,  regarding 


Fig.  99. — "There  is  a  general 
lack  of  smoothness  and  co-ordina- 
1  ion  of  the  parts." 


1  "Breeders'    Gazette,"    April   2,    1914.      W.    S.    Anderson. 

2  Fundamentals  of  Live  Stock  Judging,   1915,  p.   183. 


JUDGING  JACKS   AND  JENNETS 


179 


it  as  a  most  important  evidence  of  quality.  The  jack  natur- 
ally carries  a  thick,  long  coat,  and  any  lack  in  this  respect 
is  undesirable. 

The  temperament  of  the  jack  is  phlegmatic  and  he  is 
quiet  to  the  extreme,  in  comparison  with  the  horse.     He 
moves     about     se- 
dately  and   exhib- 
its  a   most   stable 
temperament.      In 
disposition  the  jack 
is    also    mild    and 
quiet,  with  few  bad 
habits. 

The  head  of  the 
jack  is  notable  for 
its  comparatively, 
large  size,  lack  of 
refinement  and  fine 
proportions,  and 
long,  large,  rather 
coarse,  hairy  ears. 
The  ears  at  matur- 
ity should  show  at 
least  33  inches  be- 
tween the  extended 
tips.  They  should 
be  pointed  and  car- 
ried erect  in  alert 
form.  The  head  of 
the  jack  is  rather 
deep  from  upper 
to  under  side,  and 
the  nose  has  a  Roman  curvature  which  adds  to  the  heaviness 
of  appearance. 

The  forehand  of  the  jack  inclines  to  be  somewhat  erect 
in  the  shoulder,  the  knee  is  large,  the  bone  of  the  leg  is 
heavy  and  strong,  and  the  feet  are  comparatively  smaller 


Fig.  100. — "The  ears  at  maturity  should  show  at 
least  33  inches  between  the  extended  tips." 


180  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

than  with  the  horse.  Hooper  and  Anderson  state 3  that 
the  cannon  bone  should  be  8  to  9%  inches  in  circumference, 
and  specify  that  a  jack  15%  hands  high,  weighing  1,150 
pounds,  should  measure  not  less  than  9  inches  below  the 
knee,  and  9i/>  inches  are  better.  The  feet  incline  to  be 
smaller  and  narrower  than  with  the  horse,  the  sole  higher 
and  more  arched.  A  large,  shapely  foot  is  greatly  to  be 
desired.  Probably  the  high  arched  sole  contributes  much 
to  the  surefootedness  of  this  animal  when  on  steep  mountain 
pathways  and  roads. 

The  body  of  the  jack  is  narrow,  and  lacks  depth  of  rib. 
Therefore  the  judge  should  place  a  premium  on  ample 
width  and  depth  of  body,  indicative  of  weight  and  draft 
form.  Hooper  and  Anderson  recommend  girth  measure- 
ment of  from  68  to  72  inches  about  the  chest  and  66  to  70 
inches  about  the  loin  and  flank.  Measurements  given  by 
them  of  a  two-year  old  jack,  weighing  1,000  pounds,  show 
66  inches  front  girth  and  72  inches  hind  girth.  This  was 
an  "extra  high  class "  jack  that  sold  for  $1,500.  The  hind 
flank  naturally  tends  to  be  high,  and  it  is  important  that 
this  part  be  so  carried  that  the  underline  will  be  long  and 
low,  indicative  of  feeding  capacity  and  weight. 

The  hindquarters  of  the  jack  naturally  tend  to  be  short 
and  steep  at  the  croup,  and  much  more  defective  in  con- 
formation than  in  the  horse.  It  is  important  that  the  croup 
be  long  and  wide,  and  carried  as  nearly  level  as  possible, 
but  at  the  best,  this  will  not  compare  with  the  well-turned 
croup  on  a  horse.  The  thighs  also  frequently  lack  in 
thickness  of  muscle,  and  pare  off  into  the  gaskins,  to  pro- 
duce what  is  sometimes  termed  a  cat-hammed  effect,  which 
is  not  at  all  ideal.  The  hocks  are  often  crooked  and  there 
is  a  tendency  for  them  to  stand  somewhat  close  together, 
with  the  feet  so  placed,  that  the  toes  point  widely  out. 
There  is  also  an  inclinaion  for  the  ass  to  stand  with  the 
hind  legs  extending  too  far  behind.  The  legs  should  come 

3  Bulletin  176,  Kentucky  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Nov.  30,  1913. 
I.  Jack  Stock  of  Kentucky. 


JUDGING  JACKS  AND  JENNETS 


181 


down  true  and  be  well  car- 
ried. The  hind  legs  appear 
heavy  for  the  size  of  the 
animal  and  the  joints 
frequently  seem,  coarse. 
Hooper  and  Anderson 
state4  that  "the  hock 
should  be  from  18  to  21 
inches  in  circumference, 
while  the  gaskin  should 
measure  close  to  16  inches, 
and  the  measurement  of 
rear  cannon  should  ap- 
proximate 10  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. ' '  The  hind 
feet  are  smaller  than  the 
front  ones,  and  somewhat 
steeper  and  narrower.  The 
hind  legs  of  the  jack  are 
not  marked  with  "chest- 
nuts/' as  in  the  case  of  the 
horse. 

The  action  of  the  jack  is 
slow  and  not  impressive. 
No  very  great  emphasis  is 

placed  on  this  feature  by  most  jack  breeders.  The  fact  is 
that  action  is  relatively  as  important  with  a  jack  as  with  a 
stallion,  and  he  should  be  given  reasonable  consideration 
as  to  his  trueness  of  stride  and  freedom  of  action.  There- 
fore the  judge  should  study  the  gait  of  the  jack  as  he  would 
that  of  the  horse,  though  not  emphasizing  its  importance  in 
the  same  degree. 

A  description  of  a  show  jack  is  given5  by  Mr.  L.  M. 
Monsees,  a  noted  Missouri  breeder,  in  answer  to  a  cor- 
respondent desiring  a  description  of  such  an  animaL  "A 

4  Bulletin    176,    Kentucky  Ag.    Ex.    Station. 
c  Breeders'   Gazette,  March  2,   1910,  p.  548. 


Fig.  101. — "The  hocks  are  often 
crooked  and  tliere  is  a  tendency  for 
them  to  stand  somewhat  close  to- 
gether." 


182  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

show  jack  should  be  black  with  white  marking,  15.2  to  16 
hands  tall,  standard  measure,  and  weigh  from  950  to  1,200 
pounds.  He  should  have  good  length  of  body,  good  straight 
back  (or  nearly  so),  well  sprung  rib,  good  underline  and 
good  heart  and  flank  measure,  which  should  be  about  equal. 
He  should  have  a  good  set  of  legs  and  feet ;  the  foreleg 
should  be  large  in  the  arm  and  taper  gradually  to  the  foot, 
and  the  hind  legs  should  be  wide  and  strong  in  the  stifle, 
also  tapering  to  the  foot,  with  wide  flat  hock  and  wide  flat 
bone  from  hock  to  ankle.  The  jack  should  have  a  good 
long  neck,  well  set  in  the  shoulders  and  upward  inclined 
so  he  can  get  his  head  up  like  a  high-styled  horse.  The 
head  should  be  long  and  bony  with  good  eye  bones  and  good 
heavy  jaw.  The  head  should  be  straight  or  a  little  Roman. 
The  ears  should  be  long,  thin  and  keen,  well  set  on  the 
head,  and  should  be  held  up  with  style  and  vim.  The  jack 
should  have  good  action  at  the  walk  and  trot,  carrying  his 
feet  well  under  the  body  and  carrying  the  head  high.  He 
should  step  along  the  same  in  the  trot  as  in  the  walk." 
Hooper  and  Anderson  give  the  measurements  of  a  "splendid 
jack,"  which  are  in  keeping  with  the  above  description. 
This  is  a  six-year  old,  weighing  1,155  pounds,  standing  15 
hands  I1/?  inches,  that  has  won  many  championships  in 
Kentucky,  and  sold  for  $1,800.  He  is  slightly  calf -kneed 
and  crooked  in  the  hocks. 

Inches  Inches 

Tip  to  tip  of  ears  .  .      .  .  33  Girth  at  hind  flank       .  .  72 

Width  between  eyes     .  .  9  Girth  of  arm 1G1/, 

Length  of  face   (poll  to  Girth  of  knee 16 

end  of  upper  lip)   .  .  33  Girth  of  front  cannon.  .  9% 

Girth  of  jaw  and  face  .  .  40  Girth  of  hind  cannon   .  .  101/., 

Girth  of  neck.  .      ..      ..  42  Girth  of  hock 19 

Girth  at  fore  flank       ..  70  Total  body  length.  .      ..  84 

The  Catalonian  jack  is  a  breed  from  Catalonia,  in  north- 
eastern Spain.  It  is  a  black  or  brown  breed,  the  former 
color  predominating,  with  light  points  at  muzzle,  eyes  and 
belly.  The  average  height  is  about  15  hands,  although  a 


JUDGING  JACKS   AND  JF.NNETS  183 

range  from  14  to  16  hands  occurs.  This  is  the  principal 
breed  used  in  America  for  mule  breeding,  being  popular 
on  account  of  its  style,  beauty  and  action.  The  head  shows 
considerable  refinement,  the  lines  being  well  defined.  The 
large  ears  are  generally  carried  erect  and  with  animation. 
The  quality  of  the  Catalonian  is  one  of  its  striking  fea- 


Fig.    102. — Catalonian   jack,    "Antar,   Jr.,"    217.      First   prize  at   World's 
Columbian  Exposition,  1893. 

tures,  the  hair  being  thick  and  short,  and  the  bone  somewhat 
refined  but  strong.  It  is  a  tough,  wiry  type,  maturing  early. 
The  Andalusian  jack  is  a  native  of  Andalusia,  in  southern 
Spain.  The  prevailing  color  is  gray,  with  rare  examples 
of  black.  Jacks  stand  from  14^  to  IS1/^  hands,  and  some- 
times higher.  The  head  is  of  large  size  and  yet  not  coarse. 
The  quality  and  size  of  bone  and  general  substance  are 
excellent.  In  general,  the  Andalusian  gives  evidence  of 


184 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


style  and  quality.  It  has  never  been  a  popular  breed  in 
America,  largely  on  account  of  its  color,  although  many 
of  these  jacks  have  been  imported  to  this  country. 

The  Maltese  jack  comes  from  the  island  of  Malta  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  His  color  is  either  brown  or  black. 
In  size  it  is  one  of  the  smaller  breeds,  rarely  exceeding  a 


Fig.  103.  —  A  prize-winning  jennet  at  Virginia  State  Fair. 


height  of  14%  hands.  The  head  is  well  proportioned,  with 
sharp,  upright  ears  of  good  quality.  The  Maltese  jack  has 
a  reputation  for  much  life  and  vigor,  but  its  small  size  and 
refinement  has  made  it  unpopular  in  America. 

The  Majorca  jack  is  a  native  of  an  island  of  this  name  in 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  off  the  coast  of  Spain.  This  is  one 
of  the  largest  breeds  of  asses,  having  a  drafty  form,  stand- 


JUDGING  JACKS  AND  JENNKTS 


IS.") 


ing  about  15-V£  hands  high  with  head  and  cars  of  conspicu- 
ous size,  and  possessing  heavy  bone.  There  is  lack  of  style 
and  a  sluggishness  of  action  that  has  made  unpopular  the 
introduction  of  the  breed  to  America.  These  jacks  are  par- 
ticularly valued  in  Spain  for  siring  artillery  mules. 
The  Poitou  jack  has  been  bred  for  centuries  in  western 


Fig.  104.— A  Poitou  jack  exhibited  at  Paris  Horse  Show, 
has  a  remarkable  coat  of  hair." 


'The  Poitou 


France,  near  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  This  is  the  largest  and 
most  powerful  of  the  breeds  of  asses.  The  prevailing  color 
is  black  with  light  points,  though  grays  occasionally  occur, 
but  are  not  registered  in  France.  While  distinctly  a  draft 
type,  the  Poitou  does  not  stand  especially  high,  probably 
rarely  exceeding  15  hands,  but  being  rather  low  set,  deep 
bodied  and  very  heavy  of  bone.  The  head  is  unusually 
large,  and  the  ears  of  great  size.  The  neck  is  thick  and 


186  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

powerful,  the  chest  broad,  and  the  knee  and  hock  joints 
large  like  a  draft  horse.  The  Poitou  has  a  remarkable  coat 
of  hair,  being  fine,  long,  ragged  and  matted,  the  French 
breeder  emphasizing  the  coat  as  evidence  of  quality  and 
merit.  But  few  jacks  of  this  breed  have  been  brought  to 
America,  but  those  that  have  been  have  met  with  a  reason- 
able amount  of  favor. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


JUDGING  THE  MULE. 

THE  mule  varies  greatly  in  size  and  type  owing  to  the 
wide  difference  in  these  features  of  the  parents.  There- 
fore on  market,  mules  are  classified  according  to  size,  char- 
acter and  use.  The  most  highly  valued  mule  is  of  draft 
mare  parentage,  and  shows  large  size  and  fair  quality.  The 
present  consideration  will  relate  to  the  larger,  more  drafty 


Fit?.   105. — "The  most  highly  valued  mule  is  of  draft  mare  parentage." 
(Photo  by  courtesy  Illinois  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

187 


188  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

type  of  this  animal.  The  mule  in  the  northern  United 
States  is  regarded  simply  as  a  beast  of  burden,  but  many 
farmers  in  the  South  drive  them  to  buggies  or  light  vehicles, 
for  pleasure  or  business,  as  occasion  requires.  The  mule 
trots  at  a  fair  speed  and  in  a  day  will  travel  a  long  distance. 

SCORE  CAED  FOR  THE  MULE. 

X 

Standard  of  Score  of 

SCALE   OF  POINTS                                      Perfect  Mule 

Score  Studied 
A — GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  16  Points: 

1.  Height,  Estimated  hands Actual  hands        .  .       .  .  .... 

2.  Weight.     Score  according  to  age  and  type        ....         4  ... 

3.  Form,  broad,  deep,   compact,   smooth,   symmetrical.  .         4  .... 

4.  Quality,  refined  head  and  ears,  fine  hair,  clean  bone, 

tendons  defined 4  .... 

5.  Temperament,   active,    disposition  good 4  .... 

B — HEAD  AND  NECK,  7  Points: 

6.  Head,   in    good  proportion,    clear   cut  features,   ten- 

dency to  Roman  nose  1  .... 

7.  Forehead,  broad,  full      1  .... 

8.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear 1  .... 

9.  Muzzle,  broad,   yet  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips   thin  and 

even      1  .... 

10.  Ears,  large,  long,  pointed,  fine,  well  set,  carried  alert        1  .... 

11.  Neck,  long,  muscular,  throat-latch  defined,   head  well 

set  on 2  .... 

C— FOREHAND,  24  Points: 

12.  Shoulders,  long,   sloping,    smooth,   muscular    .  .       .  .  2  .... 

13.  Arm,   short,   muscular,  elbow  in        2  .... 

14.  Forearm,  long,  wide,  muscular 2  .... 

15.  Knees,  straight,  wide,  deep,  well  supported    .  .       .  .  2  .... 

16.  Cannons,    short,     broad,     flat,     tendons     well     back, 

straight,   well   supported 2  .... 

17.  Fetlocks,    wide,    tendons    well    back,    straight,    well 

supported ' 2  .... 

18.  Pasterns,   moderate  length,    oblique,    smooth,   strong        2  .... 

19.  Beet,   medium    size,    uniform,    straight,    slope   of   wall 

parallel  to  slope  of  pastern ;  sole  concave ;  bars 
strong;  frog  prominent,  elastic;  heels  wide, 
high;  horn  dense,  smooth 6  .... 

20.  Legs,   properly  placed,   according   to   description   in 

draft  horse  score  card        4  .... 

D— BODY,  11  Points: 

21.  Withers,  well  defined,'  smooth  and  muscular   .  .       .  .  2  .... 

22.  Chest,  deep,  wide        2 

23.  Ribs,  long,  well  sprung,  close 2  .... 

24.  Back,   short,    straight,   broad,    strong        2  .... 

25.  Loin,  short,  wide,  heavily  muscled 2 

26.  Flanks,  deep,  full ;  long,  low  underline 1  .... 


JUDGING  THE   MULE 


189 


.ilar  

Standard  of    Score  of 
Perfect          Mule 
Score         Studied 

2                .... 

lot  too  close    .  . 

1                .... 

2 

SCALE    OF   POINTS 

E— HINDQUARTERS,  32  Points: 

27.  Hips,  wide,  level,   smooth,  muscular.. 

28.  Croup,   long,    level,   muscular 

29.  Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 

30.  Thighs,  thick,  deep,  muscular,  not  too  cl 

31.  Stifles,    broad,    thick,    strong 

32.  Gaskins,  long,  wide,  muscular 

33.  Hocks,   straight,   wide,   point   prominent,   dec]),    clean 

cut,  smooth,  well  supported        

34.  Cannons,  short,   broad,  flat,   tendons  prominent    an<! 

set   well   back 

35.  Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  tendons  well  back 

36.  Pasterns,      medium     length,      oblique      (about      55°), 

smooth,  strong 

37.  Feet,   medium  size,  uniform,   straight,   slope   wall  par- 

allel to  pastern;    sole  concave;   bars  strong;   fi-crc 
prominent,    elastic;    heel  wide,   high;    horn   den    • 

38.  Legs,    properly   placed,   according   to    description   in 

draft  horse  score  card        

Y — ACTION,  10  Points: 

39.  Walk,  straight,   stride  long,  active 

40.  Trot,   straight,  long,  free,  regular,  snappy  stride    .  . 


Total 100  .... 

The  general  conformation  of  the  mule  should  closely 
resemble  that  of  the  horse,  and  judges  will  be  influenced 
accordingly  in  their  decisions.  The  peculiarities  of  the 


Fig.  106. — "The  general  conformation  of  the  mule  should 
closely  resemble  that  of  the  horse." 


190 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


mule  are  mainly  shown  in  the  disposition,  voice,  ears,  tail 
and  feet,  otherwise  this  animal  may  not  materially  differ 
from  the  dam. 

The  height  of  the  mule  varies  greatly,  ranging  from  12% 
hands  for  those  used  in  mines,  up  to  17  hands  for  big 
draft  mules.  A  desirable  range  of  height  for  the  larger 
type  is  from  15%  to  16%  hands. 

The  weight  of  the  mule  of  the  larger  sort  ranges  from 
1,200  to  1,500  pounds,  though  much  heavier  weights  than 
the  latter  are  recorded,  but  are  quite  the  exception. 

The  form  of  the  mule  should  be  broad,  deep,  compact, 


Fig.  107. — "The  mule  is  less  square  at  the  corners  of  the  body  than 
the  horse,  and  is  usually  narrower  all  through." 

with  a  comparatively  large  chest,  short  back,  arid  full 
flanks.  The  mule  is  less  square  at  the  corners  of  the  body 
than  the  horse,  and  is  usually  narrower  all  through.  Yet, 
as  has  been  stated  before,  what  is  desired  is  a  conforma- 
tion approaching  as  nearly  as  possible  draft  horse  form. 
Quality  in  the  mule  has  an  important  bearing  on  its 
value..  Fine,  hard  bones;  neat,  strong  joints;  a  lean,  well 
made  head ;  and  fine,  abundant  hair  are  much  desired.  Too 


JUDGING  THE   MULE  1!)1 

heavy  and  coarse  bone,  and  coarseness  about  the  head,  are 
features  that  frequently  prevail  with  draft  mules,  and  the 
judge  should  discriminate  against  them. 

The  temperament  of  the  mule  should  be  active  and  en- 
ergetic. The  natural  tendency  is  to  be  quiet  and  dull. 
The  patience  for  which  this  animal  is  famous  is  simply 
an  expression  of  its  quiet  temperament  and  docile  habits. 
The  disposition  of  the  mule  has  been  much  misrepresented, 
for,  in  fact,  it  is  not  naturally  vicious,  though  often 
obstinate.  Men  used  to  handling  both  mules  and  horses 
regard  the  former  as  having  the  more  steady  and  reliable 
disposition  of  the  two. 

The  head  of  the  mule  should  be  of  good  size  yet  not 
coarse,  free  of  fleshiness,  clean-cut  and  giving  evidence 
of  quality.  A  Roman  nose  is  a  characteristic  feature, 
though  it  should  not  be  too  pronounced.  Such  a  nose  indi- 
cates strength  of  character.  The  ears  should  be  longer  and 
larger  than  on  the  horse,  pointed,  and  more  nearly  resem- 
bling those  of  the  sire,  the  jack,  than  those  of  the  mother, 
the  mare.  The  ears  should  show  refinement  and  not  be 
set  too  wide  apart  at  the  corners  of  the  head,  thus  giving  a 
neat,  shapely  top.  ' '  The  ears  should  be  long,  thin  and  tap- 
ering to  the  points,"  says  Mr.  J.  W.  Jones,1  a  well-known 
judge,  "presenting  a  rather  folding  appearance  about  the 
middle,  and  should  be  set  on  the  head  erect." 

The  hindquarters  of  the  mule  frequently  lack  good  con- 
formation. The  hips  may  be  too  low  set,  the  croup  steep,  the 
thighs  thin  and  the  hocks  crooked.  A  steep  croup  and 
crooked  legs  are  familiar  sights,  and  judges  will  find  it 
necessary  to  discriminate  sharply  against  this  sort.  The 
muscular  thigh  is  a  necessity  if  draft  power  is  to  be  ob- 
tained, while  the  same  argument  obtains  for  the  mule  as 
for  the  horse,  in  a  correct  placing  and  carriage  of  the 
limbs.  As  bone  is  highly  valued  in  the  mule,  the  hind  legs 
should  show  this  in  superior  degree.  The  feet  of  the  mule 
are  peculiar  in  being  relatively  small,  the  hoofs  tending 

1  American  Jack  Stock  Stud  Book,  Vol.  5,  1906,  p.   10. 


192  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

to  be  long  and  high  at  the  heel,  with  the  frog  set  in  a  rather 
high  cup.  Large  size  of  hoof  is  emphasized,  but  even  then 
a  draft  mule  will  have  a  small  foot  compared  with  a  draft 
horse,  being  longer  and  narrower.  The  hoof  should 
be  smooth  and  very  dense.  Oftentimes  the  hoofs  are  con- 
tracted, resulting  in  defective  feet.  Large,  roomy  feet  are 
naturally  free  of  this  defect. 

The  action  of  the  mule  is  not  usually  emphasized  in  the 
market,  so  long  as  no  lameness  is  present.  However,  it  is 
very  important  that  not  only  the  walk  should  be  active 
and  of  the  sort  that  gets  over  the  ground  quickly,  but  the 
trot  also  should  be  straight,  free,  regular  and  rapid.  There 
is  just  as  much  argument  in  behalf  of  such  action  with  a 
work  mule  as  a  work  horse.  Judges  should  give  careful 
attention  to  the  action,  and  note  that  the  legs  are  used  to 
give  the  very  best  results.  In  the  North,  where  the  mule  is 
driven  almost  exclusively  at  the  walk,  this  gait  would  na- 
turally receive  special  attention,  but  in  the  South,  where 
the  mules  are  commonly  used  under  the  saddle  or  hitched 
to  a  carriage,  the  trot  is  of  equal  importance  with  the 
walk,  and  should  be  so  considered.  Knee  action  is  not  so 
pronounced  with  the  mule  as  the  horse,  and  much  emphasis 
should  not  be  attached  to  it. 

The  market  classes  of  mules  vary  slightly,  according  to 
local  conditions.  St.  Louis  is  the  greatest  mule  market, 
though  large  numbers  are  handled  in  Chicago,  Kansas  City, 
Louisville,  and  New  Orleans.  Mr.  R.  C.  Obrecht  has  given 
one  classification,2  comprising  the  following  groups:  min- 
ing, cotton,  sugar,  farm  and  draft.  Mr.  John  Grant  of 
the  Kansas  City  yards,  states3  that  "the  principal  classes 
of  mules  known  to  the  market  are :  cotton,  lumber,  railroad, 
sugar,  farm,  levee,  city  and  miners'."  The  author  has 
arranged  the  following  classification,  which  will  have  a 
fairly  general  application.  The  mules  in  each  class  are 
graded  with  some  elasticity  from  choice  to  inferior. 

2  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Horses  and  Mules.      Bull.  122,  111.  Ag.  Exp. 
Station,    1908. 

3  National  Stockman  and  Farmer,  Oct.  12,  1905, 


JUDGING  THE  MULE 


193 


Fig.  108. — "Plantation  mules  represent  a  certain  class  suited  to  farm  work." 

Plantation  mules  represent  a  certain  class  suited  to  farm 
work,  especially  in  the  South.  They  may  be  divided  into 
two  sub-classes,  sugar  and  cotton  mules.  These  are  the 
larger,  better  class  mules  on  the  market.  Sugar  mules 
stand  from  16  to  16]/2  hands  high,  and  weigh  from  1,100 
to  1,400  pounds.  These  are  breedy  looking,  show  quality 
and  finish,  and  have  strong  bone.  They  especially  show 
refinement  of  head  and  neck.  Cotton  mules  stand  from 
13V2  to  15y2  hands  high  and  weigh  900  to  1,100  pounds. 
They  are  not  of  such  uniformly  high  quality  as  sugar 
mules,  ranging  from  light  to  medium  in  bone,  though  they 
must  show  smooth  finish.  They  have  small,  neat  heads,  and 
attractive  conformation.  Cotton  mules  are  very  common 
in  the  Southwest.  Curtis  says  4  ' '  this  type  of  mule  is  of  still 

4  The  Fundamentals  of  Live  Stock  Judging  and  Selection.  R.  S.  Curtis, 
Philadelphia,  1915,  p.  210. 


194 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  109. — "Draft  mules  are  large,  heavy- 
boned  mules  that  carry  more  weight  than  any 
other  class." 


lighter  build  than 
the  surface  mining 
mule.  The  body  is 
inclined  to  be  some- 
what rangy,  the 
bone  small,  and  the 
body  upstanding. 
The  quality  should 
be  uniform  and  of 
about  the  same 
standard  as  that 
possessed  by  the 
mining  mule,  the 
difference  being  in 
favor  of  the  lat- 
ter." 

Draft  mules  are 
large,  heavy-boned 
mules,  that  carry 
more  weight  than 
any  other  class. 
They  are  often  di- 
vided into  two  sub- 
classes, viz.,  lum- 
ber and  railroad 
mules.  Mules  of 
draft  class  should 
be  large,  their 
bodies  deep  and 
closely  coupled,  the 
backs  short  and 
strong,  the  croup 
not  too  drooping, 
thighs  and  gaskins 
heavily  muscled, 
bone  heavy,  and 


JUDGING   THE   MULE  !<);> 

the  feet  large.  Mules  for  lumber  camps  should  stand 
as  high  and  weigh  as  heavy  as  this  class  calls  for,  but  they 
do  not  show  as  much  quality  and  style  as  do  some  others. 
Railroad  mules  are  slightly  lighter  than  lumber  mules,  but 
possess  more  quality  and  style. 

Mine  mules  are  of  two  kinds,  known  as  pitters  and 
surface  mules,  and  range  from  11  to  15i^>  hands  high,  and 
weigh  from  650  to  1,225  pounds.  They  should  have  deep, 
compact  bodies,  heavy  bone,  short  legs  and  large  feet.  The 
smaller  ones  are  used  in  the  mines,  and  the  larger  ones 
on  the  surface. 

Farm  mules  represent  a  class  lacking  somewhat  in  uni- 
formity that  are  used  for  agricultural  purposes  in  the 
central  states.  Mules  of  this  class  represent  inferior  plan- 
tation or  draft  mules,  that  are  plain  looking  and  thin  in 
flesh,  though  with  good  constitution,  bone  and  feet. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

UNSOUNDNESS,  DISEASES  AND  DEFECTS  IN  THE 

HORSE. 

THE  subject  of  unsoundness  in  the  horse  is  regarded  an 
of  great  importance.  Many  unsound  horses  are  purchased 
by  people  who  think  them  sound.  Then  when  these  pur- 
chasers attempt  to  sell  they  find  great  depreciation  in  value. 
Therefore,  if  one  is  to  be  a  capable  judge  of  a  horse,  he 
should  have  a  fair  ability  to  identify  well-defined  cases  of 
some  of  the  more  common  unsoundnesses.  This  identifi- 
cation is  not  always  easy.  Some  forms  of  unsoundness  are 
not  clearly  apparent  until  well  established.  If  the  respira- 
tion is  not  good,  some  form  of  work,  such  as  trotting  or 
hauling  a  load  will  bring  out  this  fact.  In  the  sale  markets 
horses  are  hitched  to  wagons  with  brakes,  against  which 
they  are  caused  to  make  a  considerable  exertion  while  mov- 
ing along.  Judges  in  the  public  show  ring  are  not  re- 
quired to  pass  on  the  matter  of  unsoundness.  That  is  the 
duty  of  an  official  veterinarian.  The  English  Hackney 
Horse  Society  has  for  many  years  provided  official  veterin- 
ary examination  of  all  horses  of  that  breed  entered  at  their 
annual  London  show.  All  horses  showing  well-defined  un- 
soundness are  barred  from  exhibition.  This  method  of 
procedure,  which  might  well  be  imitated  at  many  of  our 
American  shows,  has  resulted  in  weeding  out  from  compe- 
tition many  horses  that  were  unsound,  that  should  not  come 
up  for  competition  with  sound  individuals.  In  well  de- 
fined cases  of  unsoundness  the  judge  can  hardly  avoid  dis- 
criminating against  the  animal  affected.  It  is  of  vital  im- 
portance, however,  that  there  be  no  doubt  about  the  un- 
soundness in  question. 

196 


DEFECTS   IN   THE   HORSE  197 

Lameness  is  due  to  various  causes  and  is  seen  under  a 
variety  of  conditions.  No  matter  what  the  cause,  lameness 
will  stand  as  a  defect,  if  not  an  evidence  of  unsoundness, 
and  will  seriously  affect  either  selling  value,  or  rating  in  a 
show  ring.  In  fact  it  would  not  be  good  judgment  to  place 
a  lame  horse  in  the  show  ring,  because  the  judge  would 
be  obliged  to  regard  him  as  out  of  serious  competition.  It 
is  important  that  a  judge  should  be  able  to  detect  lameness 
and  recognize  the  specific  region  of  trouble,  and  the  cause 
or  causes.  In  an  important  discussion  of  lameness1  as 
quoted  in  the  following  paragraphs,  Dr.  Frederick  B.  Had- 
ley  gives  information  that  should  be  reasonably  familiar 
to  all  qualified  judges  of  horses :  ' '  Lameness  has  been  de- 
fined as  any  irregularity  in  gait.  It  is  the  most  serious 
impediment  that  may  befall  a  horse  because  of  its  frequent 
occurrence.  From  a  diagnostic  point  of  view,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  distinguish  between  a  'swinging  leg  lameness '  in 
which  the  pain  emanates  from  the  shoulder  or  the  hip,  and 
a  'supporting  leg  lameness/  in  which  the  lesion  is  in  the 
knee,  hock  or  lower  part  of  the  leg. 

"To  detect  lameness,  the  examiner  ought  to  observe  the 
animal  at  rest.  In  severe  cases  he  may  recognize  that  pain 
exists  by  the  horse  pointing,  frequently  raising  the  affected 
limb  or  placing  the  affected  part  in  an  unnatural  position 
for  relief.  Next,  the  animal  should  be  trotted  past,  away 
from,  and  toward  the  observer.  The  attendant  must  not 
take  too  short  a  hold  on  the  halter  shank,  as  it  would  inter- 
fere with  free  movements.  The  head  and  hips  are  to  be 
closely  watched  at  this  time,  as  their  movements  are  a  re- 
liable guide  in  locating  the  seat  of  lameness. 

"If  lame  in  the  right  foreleg,  for  example,  the  head  will 
'nod'  or  'bob'  when  the  left  or  sound  foot  is  planted  on 
the  ground,  while  the  head  jerks  up  at  the  moment  the  right 
or  lame  foot  touches  the  ground. 

"When  lameness  exists  in  both  forelegs  the  action  is 
stiff  and  stilty,  the  natural  stride  is  shortened,  and  the  feet 

*The  Horse  in  Health  and  Disease,   1915,  p.    192. 


198  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

are  raised  but  little  from  the  ground.     Almost  always  the 

hind  legs  are  picked  up  higher  than  normally,  the  shoulders 

seem  to  be  stiff,  and  the  head  is  carried  higher  than  usual. 

"Lameness  behind  may  be  noted  by  a  dropping  of  the 


Fig.  110. — "To  detect  lameness,  the  examiner  ought  to  observe  the  animal 
at  rest.  In  severe  cases  he  may  recognize  that  pain  exists  by  the  horse 
pointing."  (Photo  by  courtesy  College  Veterinary  Medicine,  Ohio  State 
University.) 

hip  opposite  to  the  one  in  which  soreness  exists  when  the 
horse  is  trotted  from  the  observer. 

"Should  there  be  lameness  in  both  hind  legs  the  stride 
is  shortened  and  the  gait  awkward,  the  forelegs  are  not 
advanced  in  front  of  the  body  and  are  raised  higher  than 
usual,  and  the  head  is  lowered.  It  is  difficult  or  impossible 
to  back  a  horse  lame  in  both  hind  legs. 

' '  Horses  lame  in  both  fore  and  hind  legs  show  a  waddling 
gait  behind  that  may  be  mistaken  for  loin  or  croup  lame- 


DEFECTS  IN  THE  HORSE  199 

ness.  This  peculiar  motion  is  simply  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  hind  legs  are  unduly  advanced  under  the  body  for 
their  own  relief  or  that  of  the  front  legs. 

"Shoulder  lameness  is  shown  at  the  time  the  leg  is  ad- 
vanced, for  then  pain  is  felt.  It  is  a  typical  swinging-leg 
lameness  and  the  toe  is  dragged.  Many  horse  owners  be- 
lieve that  this  form  of  lameness  is  very  common,  but  it 
really  is  quite  rare. 

"In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  de- 
tect the  limb  in  which  lameness  exists,  but  experience  and 
keen  insight  are  required  to  locate  the  exact  seat  of  the 
trouble.  Remember  that  the  largest  percentage  of  lame- 
nesses are  located  below  the  knee  and  hock,  and  that  the 
foot  is  involved  much  oftener  than  any  other  part.  If  the 
existence  of  a  spavin  is  suspected,  give  the  horse  the 
'spavin  test.'  Palpation  (feeling)  for  the  exact  location 
of  the  soreness  is  a  valuable  aid  in  diagnosis,  but  care  should 
be  taken  to  distinguish  between  flinching  due  to  nervous- 
ness and  that  due  to  inflammatory  soreness.  The  presence 
of  one  or  more  of  the  cardinal  symptoms  of  inflammation 
are  reliable  guides  in  the  diagnosis  of  lameness.  By  placing 
the  lame  leg  in  a  normal  position  and  carefully  comparing 
it  with  the  sound  leg  for  anatomic  changes,  a  more  accurate 
diagnosis  can  be  made.  .  .  . 

"Unscrupulous  dealers  practice  certain  tricks  to  cover 
up  lameness.  Among  the  common  ones  are  the  use  of  a  curb 
bit  and  a  close  hold  on  the  leading  rein  to  keep  the  head 
raised  and  to  prevent  'nodding.'  By  paring  down  the 
sound  foot  to  the  'quick'  and  replacing  the  shoe  so  as  to 
make  both  feet  tender,  a  horse  slightly  lame  may  be  made 
to  appear  normal." 

Heaves  is  an  unsoundness  of  the  lungs,  in  which  the  thin 
air  sacs  break  down  and  lose  their  normal  contracting 
power.  Heaves  is  often  caused  by  dusty  food,  but  any 
bulky  or  indigestible  food  that  presses  on  the  diaphragm 
may  cause  this  trouble.  At  first  a  peculiar  cough  is  de- 
veloped. Later  on,  after  the  disease  is  well  established,  the 


200 


JUDGING   FARM  ANIMALS 


respiration  becomes  very  difficult.  The  horse  inhales  na- 
turally but  has  difficulty  in  exhaling.  ' '  This, ' ?  writes  Had- 
ley,2  "requires  the  patient  to  make  a  special  effort  to  force 
out  the  air.  As  a  result,  there  occurs  a  'double  pumping 
action'  of  the  flanks  with  two  expulsive  efforts  instead  of 
one.  This  produces  the  so-called  '  heave-line '  seen  along  the 
flanks  of  affected  horses.  Disguised  cases  can  be  detected, 
or  tests  can  be  carried  out  by  feeding  all  the  dusty  hay  the 
horse  will  eat,  then  giving  plenty  of  water  and  driving  him 
briskly." 

Roaring  is  a  disease  in  which  the  horse  breathes  noisily. 
The  larynx  is  affected,  but  not  the  lungs.  This  is  a  paralysis 
of  the  nerves  and  muscles  of  the  parts,  which  results  in  a 
whistle-like  noise  or  roar  when  inhal- 
ing. Roaring  is  manifested  during  ex- 
ertion, yet  a  horse  may  be  a  roarer  and 
be  driven  some  distance  without  becom- 
ing especially  noisy.  The  disease  is  he- 
reditary, and  animals  suffering  from  it 
should  be  disqualified  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. This  malady  may  be  cured  in 
a  large  per  cent  of  cases  by  surgical 
operation. 

Bone  spavin,  often  referred  to  as 
spavin,  is  found  on  the  inner  side  and 
front  of  the  hock  joint.  The  spavin 
usually  occurs  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
joint,  and  when  especially  low  down  it 
is  known  as  a  "low  or  jack  spavin." 
The  joint  surfaces  may  also  become 
enlarged,  forming  a  "blind  spavin," 
showing  no  enlargement,  but  accom- 
panied by  severe  lameness.  Spavin  is 
caused  by  a  strain  or  injury  and  con- 
sists of  accumulations  of  bony  matter 
at  the  joint.  This  is  usually  shown 

8  The  Horse  in  Health  and  Disease.     F.  B.  Hadley,  Philadelphia,  1915. 


Fig.  111.—'  'Bone 
spavin  is  found  on  the 
inner  side  and  front  of 
the  hock  joint."  (Photo 
by  courtesy  College 
Veterinary  Medicine, 
Ohio  State  University. ) 


DEFECTS   IX   THE   HORSE 


201 


in  a  thickening  of  the  part, 
as  compared  with  the  sound 
hock.  The  occurrence  of  the 
spavin  is  most  easily  seen  by 
standing  directly  back  of  the 
horse ;  it  may  also  be  seen 
from  the  front  by  looking 
back  between  the  forelegs. 
The  gait  of  a  badly  spavined 
horse  shows  a  pronounced 
lameness.  The  affected  leg 
shows  some  hitch  in  action, 
and  the  weight  is  heavily 
thrown  on  the  sound  leg,  re- 
sulting in  some  depression 
of  the  hip  on  that  side.  The 
occurrence  of  the  bone 
spavin  may  be  determined 
by  the  following  method: 
Grasp  the  lower  end  of  the 
cannon  bone  and  flex  the 
joint  as  much  as  possible, 
keeping  the  leg  in  this  posi- 
tion a  minute  or  two.  Then 

release  the  leg,  and  have  the  animal  driven  away  at  a  trot, 
the  examiner  standing  behind  the  line  of  movement.  In 
case  of  spavin,  the  characteristic  lameness  of  this  disease 
will  be  apparent.  Bone  spavin  is  regarded  as  a  serious  un- 
soundness,  and  greatly  damages  the  sale  value  of  a  horse. 
It  is  more  prevalent  with  light  rather  than  heavy  horses. 

Bog"  spavin  is  a  puffy  swelling  on  the  front  and  inside 
of  the  hock  joint.  It  is  due  to  an  inflammation  of  the 
synovial  sac  of  the  joint  from  which  results  the  production 
of  an  abnormal  amount  of  synovial  fluid.  When  well  de- 
veloped this  spavin  is  clearly  seen,  and  feels  soft  to  the 
pressure  of  the  fingers.  It  does  not  usually  cause  lame- 
ness, though  it  may.  The  bog  spavin  is  most  common  on 


Fig.  112. — "Bog  spavin  is  a  puffy 
swelling  on  the  front  and  inside  of 
the  hock  joint."  This  right  leg  also 
has  a  well-marked  thoroughpin. 
(Photo  by  courtesy  College  Veter- 
inary Medicine,  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity.) 


202  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

draft  horses  and  especially  those  having  fleshy  or  meaty 
hocks. 

Thoroughpin  is  intimately  associated  with  bog  spavin, 
and  is  found  in  the  thinnest  part  of  the  hock  at  its  rear 
part.  When  the  synovial  sac  is  greatly  enlarged,  the  fluid 
extends  into  this  thin  part  of  the  hock,  where  we  usually 
expect  to  find  graceful  outlines  with  marked  depression.  If 
a  thoroughpin  occurs,  a  swelling  will  be  noticeable  on  each 
side  of  the  hock  at  this  point.  Heavy  draft  horses  often 
show  puffy  hocks,  and  this  condition  the  dealers  are  in- 
clined to  regard  as  unimportant.  However,  the  hocks  of 
heavy  horses  should  be  carefully  examined  for  this  puffy 
condition,  as  bogs  and  thoroughpins  are  unsoundnesses. 
Lameness  may  not  result,  but  the  value  of  the  horse  is 
depreciated. 

Curb  is  also  an  unsoundness  of  the  hock,  and  is  seen  in 
a  swelling  or  bulging  out  of  the  back  side  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  joint.  "When  sound,  the  back  of  the  hock  slightly 
below  the  point  has  rather  a  perpendicular  or  straight  edge. 
If  there  is  a  curb,  by  standing  on  one  side,  one  will  notice 
an  outward  curve,  instead  of  a  straight  line.  Hocks  that 
do  not  have  pronounced  curbs,  yet  that  tend  to  round  out 
at  this  point,  are  said  to  have  a  curby  conformation.  The 
curb  is  caused  by  strains  or  injury  to  the  ligament,  tendon 
or  skin  of  this  part  of  the  hock.  If  ligament  or  tendon 
is  seriously  affected,  lameness  will  result.  The  curb  is 
regarded  with  disfavor  by  horsemen,  and  is  the  cause  of 
much  comment. 

Sidebone  is  found  on  the  rear  part  of  the  foot,  especially 
the  front  one,  on  the  wing  of  the  coffin  bone,  at  the  crown 
or  top  of  the  hoof.  It  is  due  to  hardening  of  the  cartilages, 
whereby  they  take  on  a  bony  character,  which  when  seri- 
ously developed  causes  lameness.  In  well-defined  cases 
the  sidebones  appear  as  hard  projections  just  beneath  the 
skin,  and  can  be  plainly  seen  or  felt.  In  the  early  stages 
sidebones  are  not  easily  discovered,  and  one  may  buy  a 
horse  appearing  sound,  that  in  a  short  time  will  show  this 


DEFECTS   IN   THE   HORSE 


203 


trouble.  Draft  horses,  especially  those  with  long  feet  and 
high  heel  are  most  predisposed  to  have  this  disease.  Ac- 
cording to  Gay,3  "sidebones  are  most  common  on  the  outer 
quarters  of  wide-fronted  draft  horses,  because  such  horses 
are  inclined  to  be  'toe  nar- 
row, '  which  brings  the  outer 
quarter  nearer  to  the  center 
of  weight  bearing,  thereby 
imposing  weight  and  wear 
which  should  be  borne  by 
the  other  quarter."  Horses 
driven  on  pavement  or  hard 
roads  are  much  more  given 
to  sidebones  than  those  work- 
ing most  of  their  time  on  the 
farm,  or  on  soft  ground. 
Lameness  may  not  be  evi- 
dent, even  where  very  pro- 
nounced cases  of  sidebones 
occur,  yet  this  disease  is 
classed  as  an  unsoundness 
and  seriously  affects  selling 
values.  Horse  dealers  and 
judges  have  given  much 
more  emphasis  to  this  sub- 
ject since  the  beginning  of 
the  twentieth  century,  than 
prior  to  this  period.  It  is 
difficult  to  find  heavy  draft  horses,  used  on  pavements,  that 
are  entirely  free  from  this  unsoundness. 

Ringbone  is  a  bony  deposit  which  encircles  the  pastern 
bones,  especially  those  of  the  front  legs.  On  old  horses 
this  bony  enlargement  sometimes  becomes  quite  prominent. 
Ringbone  may  be  due  to  hard  work,  strains  or  bruises,  and 
may  cause  serious  lameness. 

Splint  is  a  bony  projection  or  roughness  usually  found 

3  Productive    Horse   Husbandry,    Philadelphia,    1914,   p.    149. 


Fig.  113. — "Sidebone  is  found  on 
the  rear  part  of  the  foot,  especially 
the  front  one,  on  the  wing  of  the  cof- 
fin bone,  at  the  crown  or  top  of  the 
hoof."  (Photo  by  courtesy  College 
Veterinary  Medicine,  Ohio  State 
University.) 


204 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


I 


on  the  inside  of  the  foreleg 
below  the  knee  and  associated 
with  the  splint  bone  which  lies 
close  to  the  cannon.  Hadley 
states4  that  "the  splint  is 
found  in  about  70  per  cent  of 
all  adult  horses;  in  93  per 
cent  of  these  it  is  said  to  occur 
on  the  inner  side."  Hadley 
also  classifies  splints  as  either 
single  or  double,  and  states 
that  the  so-called  "pegged" 
splint,  is  &  form  in  which  the 
growth  extends  across  the 


Fig.  114. — "Ringbone  is  a  bony 
deposit  which  encircles  the  pastern 
bones,  especially  those  of  the  front 
legs."  (Photo  by  courtesy  College 
Veterinary  Medicine,  Ohio  State 
University.) 


posterior  surface  of  the  meta- 
carpus, and  interferes  with 
the  play  of  the  suspensory 
ligament.  As  a  rule  splints 
are  not  regarded  as  unsound- 
ness,  but  simply  as  blemishes, 
and  they  are  rarely  the  cause 
of  lameness.  Splints  may 
often  be  easily  seen  by  stand- 
ing in  front  and  looking  at 
the  inside  of  the  legs.  Neither 
the  horse  dealer  or  the  judge 


Fig.  115. — "Splint  is  a  bony  pro- 
jection or  roughness  usually  found 
on  the  inside  of  the  foreleg,  below 
the  knee."  (Photo  by  courtesy 
College  Veterinary  Medicine,  Ohio 
State  University.) 

as  a  rule  emphasizes  the  importance  of  the  splint. 

*The  Horse  in  Health  and  Disease.     Frederick  B.  Hadley,  1915,  p.  207. 


DEFECTS   IN   THE   HORSE  205 

Quarter-crack  or  sand-crack  is  a  splitting  or  cracking 
of  the  horny  part  of  the  hoof,  usually  of  the  front  foot. 
This  crack  may  be  due  to  one  of  several  things,  such  as 
dryness  of  hoof,  brittle  horn,  improper  shoeing,  heavy 
shoes,  etc.  The  crack  begins  at  the  crown  of  the  hoof,  and 
extends  downward,  and  may  occupy  the  length  of  the  hoof. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  put  metal  clamps  over  the 
cracks.  This  trouble  may  develop  enough  to  break  through 
the  lower  part  of  the  foot  and  cause  serious  trouble  and 
lameness.  Toe-crack  is  similar  to  quarter-crack,  and  usu- 
ally occurs  on  the  hind  foot,  and  in  the  front  part. 

Founder,  or  laminitis,  is  an  unsoundness  of  the  feet,  due 
to  congestion  of  blood  between  the  delicate  laminae  or  layers 
within  the  hoof.  It  is  usually  found  in  the  front  feet.  It 
is  caused  by  a  variety  of  conditions,  such  as  overfeeding, 
overwork,  exposure,  lack  of  exercise  resulting  in  retarded 
circulation  in  the  feet,  etc.  Intense  pain  results.  The 
horse  when  standing,  attempts  to  take  as  much  weight 
from  the  front  feet  as  possible.  He  tends  to  place  the 
front  feet  somewhat  forward,  shoves  the  hind  feet  well 
under  the  body,  thus  endeavoring  to  relieve  the  front  pres- 
sure. A  horse  thus  affected  moves  with  difficulty  and  will 
refuse  to  back.  If  well  established,  founder  is  incurable 
and  causes  the  horse  much  lameness.  The  more  perfect  the 
foot,  the  less  is  the  liability  to  founder.  A  very  flat  foot, 
or  one  with  high  hoof  walls  or  a  foot  that  is  contracted,  is 
liable  to  be  affected  with  this  disease. 

Navicular  disease  is  an  inflammation  of  a  chronic  char- 
acter that  occurs  in  the  foot,  affecting  the  navicular  bone 
and  its  related  parts.  It  occurs  most  frequently  with 
harness  horses,  and  especially  those  with  great  knee  action. 
Usually  but  one  forefoot  suffers  from  the  disease,  which  is 
caused  by  concussion  or  shock  to  the  affected  parts.  The 
early  stages  of  the  disease  are  not  commonly  noticed.  At- 
tention is  first  directed  to  the  " pointing"  of  the  foot,  which 
is  extended  forward,  the  weight  resting  on  the  toe.  As  the 
disease  progresses  lameness  is  noticed,  which  increases  with 


206  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

the  use  of  the  horse.  In  the  early  stages  the  lameness  may 
be  intermittent,  the  horse  having  spells  of  going  lame,  then 
appearing  sound  for  a  time,  again  lame,  etc.  But  as  the 
disease  develops,  lameness  finally  becomes  permanent.  Few 
cases  of  this  disease  recover. 

Cocked  ankle  or  knuckling,  is  a  partial  dislocation  of  the 
pastern  or  fetlock  joint,  in  which  case  the  pastern  becomes 
more  perpendicular  than  usual,  throwing  the  joint  forward 
out  of  natural  position.  This  is  not  always  an  unsoundness, 
but  is  a  defect,  in  that  it  causes  stumbling  and  clumsy 
action. 

A  Quittor  is  a  running  wound,  comparable  with  the  fis- 
tula, and  is  located  at  the  hoof  head.  It  is  due  to  injury 
to  the  inner  structure  of  the  hoof,  such  as  might  come  from 
a  bruise,  nail  prick,  injury  to  the  frog,  etc.  There  is  swell- 
ing, heat  and  pain  at  the  seat  of  the  trouble,  associated  with 
pronounced  lameness.  Openings  will  occur  at  the  hoof 
head,  where  pus  may  escape. 

Thrush,  is  due  to  the  horn  in  and  about  the  frog  becoming 
soft  and  porous,  permitting  infection.  If  the  horse  stands 
in  a  damp  stable,  or  under  moist  and  unsanitary  conditions, 
thrush  may  occur.  Dark  pus  of  an  offensive  character 
exudes  about  the  frog.  This  is  not  an  unsoundness,  but  is 
a  diseased  condition  that  is  quite  common,  and  easily  cured 
in  a  sanitary  stable  where  the  affected  parts  are  pared  away 
and  disinfectants  applied. 

Capped  hock  is  a  puffed-out  condition  at  the  point  of 
the  hock,  and  is  usually  due  to  a  blow  against  this  part. 
Horses  that  are  shipped  under  close  quarters  often  kick 
and  so  cause  capped  hocks.  The  point  of  the  hock  accumu- 
lates some  fluid  and,  by  treatment,  this  may  in  many  cases 
be  absorbed  and  the  hock  take  on  a  normal  character. 
Often,  however,  severe  cases  are  incurable.  A  capped  hock 
is  a  blemish,  rather  than  an  unsoundness. 

Fistula  is  an  abscess  of  more  or  less  depth  at  the  withers. 
Swelling  of  the  part,  accompanied  by  fever,  and  the  exuda- 
tion of  pus  occurs.  Some  cases  of  fistula  are  very  deep- 


DEFECTS   IN   THE   HORSE 


207 


seated,  burrowing  into 
the  muscles  of  the 
shoulder  and  affect- 
ing the  bone.  It  may 
usually  be  cured  by 
long  and  patient 
treatment,  but  the 
disease  is  a  decided 
unsoundness  while  it 
lasts. 

Poll  evil  is  a  swell- 
ing at  the  top  of  the 
neck  directly  behind 
the  ears,  and  is  usu- 
ally caused  by  a 
bruise.  The  swelling 
affects  the  region  over 
the  first  vertebra?. 
This  is  an  unsound- 
ness  that  may  be  cured 
by  expert  veterinary 
service. 

Defective  eyesight 

is  not  an  uncommon  affection  with  the  horse,  and  is  not 
always  easily  determined.  However,  if  the  lens  or  cornea 
become  darkened  and  opaque  so  that  sight  is  affected,  this 
defect  may  be  easily  noticed. 


Fig.  116. — "Capped  hock  is  a  puffed-out 
condition  at  the  joint  of  the  hock."  Note 
near  hock.  This  horse  also  has  a  contracted 
tendon  in  same  leg.  (Photo  by  courtesy 
College  Veterinary  Medicine,  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity.) 


PART  III— JUDGING  CATTLE. 

CHAPTER    XVII. 
THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  OX. 

A  study  of  the  anatomy  of  the  ox,  even  in  quite  an 
elementary  degree,  will  add  much  to  one's  efficiency  as  a 
judge  of  cattle.  The  bony  structure,  the  distribution  of  the 
muscles,  the  character  and  uses  of  the  vital  and  digestive 
organs,  have  a  most  important  bearing  on  the  relationship 
of  form  to  function. 

The  skeleton  of  the  ox  is  lower  set  and  somewhat  longer 
than  is  that  of  the  horse.  The  skull  consists  of  eight  bones, 
with  the  frontal  one  the  largest  and  most  important.  This 
occupies  the  upper  half  of  the  skull,  and  the  horns  are 
extensions  of  what  might  be  termed  its  corners.  It  is 
larger  and  stronger  with  the  bull  than  the  cow.  The 
spinal  column  consists  of  about  fifty  bones,  of  which  five 
are  united  in  one  piece,  the  sacrum,  and  18  to  20  are  in 
the  coccyx  or  tail.  An  interesting  feature  of  the  spine  is 
that  its  upper  points  rise  to  form  a  line  along  most  of 
the  back  that  is  very  nearly  straight,  which  accounts  for 
the  level  back  to  be  seen  on  cattle.  The  deeper  covering 
of  flesh  over  the  spine  occurs  along  that  portion  of  the 
back  where  the  spinal  processes  are  shortest.  "The  spinous 
processes  of  the  anterior  bones  of  the  back  constituting 
the  withers/'  says  Youatt,1  "are  stronger,  but  not  so  long 
as  in  the  horse.  While  a  very  slight  curve  should  mark  the 
situation  of  the  withers,  the  irregularity  of  the  processes 
of  the  bones  should  never  be  visible.  The  less  the  curve 
the  better,  and  no  decided  hollow  behind  should  point  out 

1  Cattle,    1860,   p.   372. 

209 


210  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

the  place  where  the  withers  terminate,  and  the  more  level 
surface  of  the  back  commences.  This  is  a  departure  from 
good  conformation  for  which  nothing  can  compensate.  It 
not  only  takes  away  so  much  substance  from  the  spot  on 
which  good  flesh  and  fat  should  be  thickly  laid,  but  it 
generally  shows  an  indisposition  to  accumulate  flesh  and  fat 
in  the  right  places."  The  ribs  on  the  ox  number  thirteen 
pairs,  and  according  to  Sisson,2  they  are  in  general  longer, 
wider,  flatter,  less  curved  and  less  regular  in  form  than 
in  the  horse.  They  have  a  more  horizontal  extension  from 
the  spine  than  do  those  of  the  horse,  thus  providing  large 
chest  capacity  above  as  well  as  below.  The  sternum  is 
wider,  flatter  and  relatively  longer  than  in  the  horse.  The 
shoulder  blade  is  in  a  degree  triangular,  with  a  prominent 
projection  on  its  outer  face,  which  furnishes  strong  mus- 
cular attachment.  The  long  leg  bones  are  shorter  and 
heavier  than  with  the  horse.  The  pelvis  has  a  somewhat 
level  carriage,  but  with  an  upward  curve  of  its  rear 
part  or  ischium  points,  more  commonly  known  as  pin 
bones.  The  ox  is  a  two-toed  or  cloven-hoofed  animal. 
Lydekker  states 3  that  two  of  the  toes  in  each  limb,  cor- 
responding in  the  forelimb  to  the  third  and  fourth  fingers 
of  the  human  hand,  and  in  the  hind  limb  to  the  third  and 
fourth  toes  of  the  human  foot,  form  a  symmetrical  pair 
on  either  side  of  a  vertical  line  drawn  between  them.  In 
most  cases  these  two  toes  or  hoofs  are  flanked,  as  in  the  ox, 
by  a  smaller  pair  representing  the  human  second  and  fourth 
fingers  and  toes.  This  division  of  the  foot  is  extended 
through  the  pastern  joint,  to  the  point  where  the  shank 
bone  meets  this  joint.  Such  a  division  of  the  foot  has  its 
disadvantages,  for  it  is  a  weaker  formation,  making  strained 
feet  much  more  possible  than  in  the  case  of  the  single 
hoof  of  the  horse.  In  the  space  between  the  toes,  filth  also 
accumulates,  thus  promoting  lameness  and  disease,  espe- 
cially what  is  termed  ' '  foul  foot. ' ' 

2  The  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals,   1914,  p.  130. 

3  The  Ox  and  its  Kindred,   1912,  p.   12. 


THE   ANATOMY   OF   THE   OX  211 

The  external  muscular  development  of  the  ox  is  in 

harmony  with  what  might  be  expected  in  economic  meat 
production.  The  neck  is  made  up  of  several  long,  strong 
muscles.  One  powerful  muscle  extends  from  back  of  the 
ears  to  the  rib  below  the  shoulder  point,  and  as  Youatt 
says,4  "however  thin  and  deer-like  we  may  wish  the  neck 
of  a  favorite  ox  to  be  at  the  setting  on  of  the  head,  we  look 
for  plenty  of  muscle  at  the  bottom  of  it,  or  we  shall  have 
neither  strength  nor  substance  in  any  part  of  the  animal. ' ' 
The  form  of  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  is  due  to  the  large 
muscle  covering  this  part  and  extending  back  over  the 
withers.  The  widest  muscle  of  the  back  extends  from  the 
shoulder  along  the  side  and  over  the  back.  This  muscle 
takes  on  considerable  fat,  especially  behind  the  shoul- 
ders. A  thick  muscle  lies  beneath  the  lower  part  of  the 
shoulder  connecting  the  brisket  and  floor  of  the  chest. 
Another  large  and  fairly  thick  muscle  covers  the  lower 
half  of  the  rear  part  of  the  body,  giving  important  sup- 
port for  the  great  weight  of  this  region.  On  the  hind- 
quarter  are  several  thick,  meaty  muscles.  One  of  these 
lies  about  the  hip  and  pelvis.  The  thigh  is  covered  by  a 
very  thick  muscle,  which  extends  from  the  point  of  the 
hip  and  stifle  over  much  of  the  upper  leg,  being  overlapped 
at  the  rear  of  the  hindquarter  by  a  double  muscle.  On 
the  thickness  of  the  thigh  muscles  depends  largely  the 
type,  whether  beef  or  dairy,  and  whether  the  animal  has 
been  fattened  or  not.  From  a  beef  point  of  view,  these 
thigh  muscles  cannot  be  either  too  thick  or  long. 

The  heart  of  the  ox  weighs  about  five  and  one-half 
pounds,  and  is  slightly  longer  and  less  broad  at  its  base 
than  that  of  the  horse.  It  is  situated  on  the  left  side  at 
the  bottom  of  the  chest  cavity. 

The  lungs  of  the  ox  weigh  about  seven  and  one-half 
pounds,  the  right  one  weighing  about  half  as  much  more 
than  the  left  one.  The  lungs  lie  between  the  front  ribs 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  chest. 

4  Cattle,    1860,    p.    339. 


212 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


The  liver  of  the  ox  weighs  from  ten  to  twelve  pounds, 
and  lies  on  the  right  side,  being  partly  covered  by  the 
lung.  The  liver  extends  diagonally  from  near  the  lower 
end  of  the  sixth  rib,  to  and  beyond  the  thirteenth  rib  just 
below  the  spinal  column. 

The  kidneys  of  the  ox  weigh  twenty  to  twenty-five 
ounces.  These  are  located  just  below  the  vertebrae  at  the 
loin.  Sisson  states5  that  "in  the  young  calf  the  kidneys 
are  symmetrically  placed,  but  with  the  development  of  the 
stomach,  when  the  rumen  is  full,  it  pushes  the  left  kidney 
backward  to  a  position  on  the  right  side,  behind  and  at  a. 


Fig.  118. — The  viscera  .of  the  ox  in  position  on  the  right  side  of  the  body. 
(By  courtesy  of  Dr.  S.  Sisson,  from  The  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals.) 

lower  level  than  the  right  kidney.  The  kidneys  have 
about  twenty  lobes  on  the  outer  surface,  and  the  space 
between  these  ordinarily  fills  with  fat. 

The  stomach  of  the  ox  is  composed  of  four  parts,  the 
rumen  or  paunch,  the  reticulum  or  honeycomb,  the  omasum 
or  manyplies,  and  the  abomasum  or  true  stomach.  This 
whole  organ  occupies  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  abdominal 
cavity.  The  capacity  depends  on  the  size  of  the  animal, 
but  Sisson  gives  thirty  to  forty  gallons  as  the  capacity  of 

6  Anatomy  of  Domestic  Animals,   1914,  p.   565. 


THE   ANATOMY  OF   THE  OX  213 

medium-sized  animals,  with 
a  maximum  of  sixty  for  large 
ones.  The  rumen  is  the  largest 
division  of  the  stomach, 
making  about  80  per  cent  of 
the  whole,  the  recticulum  5 
per  cent,  and  the  other  divi- 
sions about  7  or  8  per  cent 

po  p  Ti 

.      _  Fig.  119.— The  stomach  of  the  ox. 

The    intestines     01     the    OX        (Courtesy  Orange  Judd  Company.) 

are  of  two  classes,  large  and 

small.  The  small  intestine  connects  with  the  true  stomach, 
and  is  about  130  feet  long.  The  large  intestine  is  about 
thirty-five  feet  long,  and  is  a  continuation  from  the  smaller 
intestine  to  the  anus  or  vent.  These  organs  occupy  the 
rear  part  of  the  abdomen,  the  small  intestine  being  situ- 
ated below  the  large  one. 

An  indication  of  the  age  of  the  ox  is  to  be  found  in  the 
number  of  rings  about  the  base  of  the  horn,  or  in  the 
number  and  character  of  the  front  teeth.  The  horn,  as 
has  been  stated,  is  an  outgrowth  from  the  frontal  bone. 
When  an  ox  reaches  the  age  of  three  years,  one  ring  is 
usually  to  be  seen  about  the  base  of  the  horn.  The  fourth 
year  a  second  ring  appears,  with  one  each  year  following, 
until  the  animal  is  six  or  seven  years  old.  Thus,  by  adding 
two  years  to  the  number  of  rings  visible,  many  have  as- 
sumed they  could  state  the  age  of  an  ox.  This  method, 
however,  is  hardly  certain  or  satisfactory,  for  the  rings 
are  not  always  well  defined,  and  at  best  this  estimate  can 
only  be  applied  in  case  of  the  cow.  The  rings  appear 
later  on  the  bull,  at  either  four  or  five  years,  and  in  view 
of  the  constant  usage  of  the  horns  by  the  male,  they  are 
largely  rubbed  off.  Youatt  states6  also  that,  "if  a  heifer 
goes  to  a  bull  when  she  is  a  two-year  old,  or  a  little  before 
that  time,  there  is  an  immediate  change  in  the  horn,  and 
the  first  ring  appears,  so  that  a  real  three-year  old  would 

•Cattle,    1860,    p.   280. 


214  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

carry  the  mark  of  a  four-year  old.  Sometimes  the  two 
horns  on  the  same  animal  show  different  numbers  of  rings. 
Further,  if  the  horn  has  been  filed  and  rubbed  down,  as 
with  show  animals,  some  of  the  oldest  rings  may  become  so 
indistinct  as  to  be  difficult  of  observation.  Therefore,  it 
may  be  concluded  that  the  horn  is  not  a  very  accurate 
guide  to  determine  the  age  of  the  ox. 

The  teeth  as  an  indication  of  the  age  of  the  ox  are  a 
fairly  accurate  g'uide  for  perhaps  the  first  six  years  of  the 
animal's  life.  The  mouth  of  the  ox,  with  all  the  teeth  in 
place,  has  eight  incisors  on  the  front  of  the  lower  jaw,  and 
six  molar  or  cheek  teeth  in  the  back  of  each  upper  and 
lower  jaw,  a  total  of  thirty-two.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
sheep,  the  front  upper  jaw  of  the  ox  is  supplied  with  a 
tough  pad,  against  which  the  lower  front  teeth  touch  in 
slanting  position.  The  front  teeth  serve  for  indicating  the 
age.  The  calf  at  birth  or  a  few  days  later,  shows  two 
teeth.  Within  two  weeks  two  more  teeth  have  appeared, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  first  pair.  Two  more  follow  these, 
perhaps,  the  third  week,  and  within  a  month  or  even  less, 
eight  temporary  or  milk  teeth  occupy  the  front  of  the 
lower  jaw.  These  temporary  teeth  wear  down  gradually, 
beginning  with  the  central  pair.  At  three  months  the  six 
central  teeth  will  be  worn  off  somewhat,  and  at  four  months 
the  entire  eight  will  show  a  reduced  surface.  From  this 
time  on,  the  teeth  go  through  a  process  of  reduction  from 
the  central  pair  outward,  becoming  smaller  and  more  and 
more  triangular  with  shorter  crowns  and  increased  space 
between  each  pair  of  teeth.  At  about  one  year  of  age 
there  are  four  small  triangular  teeth  in  the  center,  with 
two  ordinary  milk  teeth  on  each  side  of  these.  At  eighteen 
months  or  thereabouts,  all  eight  teeth  are  small,  with  tri- 
angular tops,  and  distinctly  separated  from  each  other. 
Finally,  between  eighteen  months  and  two  years,  the  first 
pair  of  milk  teeth  disappear,  and  a  pair  of  larger  and 
permanent  ones  take  their  place.  During  the  period  of 
two  to  two  and  one-half  years,  the  pair  of  milk  teeth  next 


THE   ANATOMY  OF   THE   OX  215 

the  permanent  pair  disappear,  and  a  permanent  pair 
come  in  their  places.  About  three  years  of  age  the  third 
pair  comes  in,  one  on  each  side  of  the  four,  and  finally  at 
three  and  one-half  to  four  years  of  age,  the  corner  milk 
teeth  are  supplanted  by  permanent  incisors.  Thus  it  can 
be  assumed  that  two  of  these  new  teeth  indicate  about  a 
yearling,  four  a  two-year  old,  six  a  three-year  old  and  eight 
a  three-  to  four-year  old.  Some  consider  six  teeth  as  a 
sign  of  a  four-year  old  and  eight  as  a  five-year  old.  There 
is  some  variation  in  the  appearance  of  these  permanent  in- 
cisors, due  to  feeding  and  condition.  Cattle  mature  earlier 
to-day  than  they  did  fifty  years  ago,  and  no  doubt  this 
characteristic  also  influences  an  earlier  appearance  of  the 
teeth.  At  six  years  the  teeth  are  in  most  perfect  form,  but 
a  little  flattened  on  top,  and  with  the  central  pair  show- 
ing dark  lines  in  the  center.  From  now  on  the  age  can  only 
be  guessed  at.  The  teeth  gradually  wear  down,  and  change 
to  a  more  slanting  position.  Various  conditions  affect  the 
teeth  and  their  importance  as  indicating  age.  Those  used 
the  most  for  grazing  will  show  the  greatest  wear.  At 
seven  years  the  dark  lines  in  all  the  teeth  are  yet  more 
visible,  and  at  eight  especially  so  in  the  central  ones.  At 
nine  the  middle  two  begin  to  show  reduced  size,  and  at 
ten  the  four  central  ones  are  smaller  than  the  others.  Thus 
the  teeth  wear  off  from  central  to  outer  pair,  so  that  often 
one  will  see  cows  fifteen  years  old  or  older  that  have  no  teeth 
excepting  small  stumps,  or  no  incisors  at  all. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  DOMESTIC  CATTLE. 

THE  different  kinds  of  domestic  cattle,  as  a  matter  of 
convenience,  may  be  classified  into  three  distinct  types, 
according-  to  their  conformation.  We  may  find  examples 
of  each  type  within  single  breeds,  or  among  a  collection 
of  animals  of  no  special  breeding.  The  fact  that  type  and 
function  are  closely  related,  has  naturally  caused  cattle 
breeders  to  endeavor  to  produce  animals  of  definite  type  and 
character.  Therefore,  as  a  result  of  breeding,  there  has 
been  produced  a  well  recognized  beef  type,  in  which  meat 
production  is  the  important  factor ;  also  a  dairy  type,  with 
milk  production  the  essential ;  and  a  third  type,  the  dual 
purpose,  with  both  beef  and  milk  regarded  as  perhaps 
equally  important.  In  each  breed  of  cattle,  as  a  rule,  we 
recognize  but  one  type  for  its  standard,  although  there  are 
striking  exceptions.  A  good  example  is  the  case  of  the 
Shorthorn  breed,  in  which  both  beef  and  dual-purpose  type 
animals  receive  special  recognition.  The  fact  is  that  one 
will  find  within  any  one  breed  examples  of  wide  variation 
in  type,  some  dairy  animals  being  meaty  and  some  beef  ani- 
mals lean  and  of  dairy  form.  So  it  may  be  said,  that  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  decide  whether  an  animal  should  be  classed 
as  of  one  type  or  another.  It  is  simple  enough  for  a  quali- 
fied judge  to  decide  in  which  group  to  place  good  examples 
of  type ;  the  difficulty  lies  in  classifying  those  animals  that 
are  not  good  examples,  and  so  belong  perhaps  as  much  in  one 
group  as  another.  To  illustrate,  two  judges  were  examin- 
ing a  cow  which  one  regarded  as  a  dual-purpose  animal. 
The  other  insisted  that,  from  his  point  of  view,  she 
was  of  the  dairy  type.  The  fact  is,  in  a  milking  Short- 
horn show,  she  would  have  passed  as  of  dual-purpose  type, 

216 


THE   CLASSIFICATION    OF    IX  ).M  KSTFC  CATTI.K        -J17 

but  undoubtedly  she  would  not  have  been  seriously  criti- 
cized for  type  in  a  show  of  grade  dairy  animals.  This  is 
not  unreasonable.  It  would  not  be  difficult  to  find  good  ex- 
amples of  dual-purpose  heifers,  somewhat  thick  and  smooth 
soon  after  calving,  that  after  milking  six  months  would 
clearly  seem  of  dairy  type.  The  condition  in  this  case 
largely  affected  the  classification  of  type.  It  is  import  a  u1 
to  understand,  however,  that  the  three  types  above  re- 
ferred to  are  generally  recognized,  and  that  good  examples 
of  each  are  clearly  distinct  and  different  from  each  other 
in  conformation. 

Sub-types  of  cattle  may  be  defined  as  minor  variations 
within  a  type.  In  recent  years  stockmen  have  come  to  talk 
much  about  type,  so  that  within  a  breed  we  hear  comment 
on  this  or  that  type.  This  reference  is  largely  due  to  a  cer- 
tain line  of  breeding,  wherein  quite  distinctive  differences 
have  developed.  Shorthorn  breeders  speak  of  the  Scotch 
type  or  Bates  type,  one  being  more  compact  and  blockier 
than  the  other,  yet  each  within  the  one  type.  Jersey  breed- 
ers refer  to  the  American  and  the  Island  types,  the  former 
being  plainer  of  head,  rather  larger  framed,  and  with  less 
symmetry  of  udder  than  the  latter,  yet  each  is  of  the  dairy 
type.  These  are  simple  examples  to  demonstrate  that  the 
word  type  is  often  used  to  refer  to  one  class  within  another. 
The  more  experienced  the  judge  or  breeder,  the  more  at- 
tention he  is  likely  to  give  to  these  minor  distinctions, 
which  he  really  classifies  into  sub-types.  These  character- 
istics do  not  interest  the  feeder  or  the  man  engaged  in 
handling  grade  cattle,  and  are  emphasized  only  by  the 
breeder  of  pure-bred  stock. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  BEEF  CARCASS  AND  ITS  CUTS. 

The  final  purpose  of  the  beef  animal  is  to  furnish  meat 
for  human  consumption.  This  being  so,  it  is  important 
that  the  animal  have  a  conformation  that  with  suitable 
feeding  will  yield  cuts  of  meat  of  a  high  degree  of  excel- 
lence. No  matter  what  age  or  stage  of  development,  if 
of  the  proper  conformation,  the  live  animal  as  a  rule  may 
be  so  fed  as  to  produce  a  prime  carcass  of  meat  at  slaughter. 

The  physical  and  chemical  character  of  meat  has  an  im- 
portant relationship  to  animal  production.  Meat  consists 
of  a  combination  of  muscular  fibers,  more  or  less  asso- 
ciated with  fat.  If  a  piece  of  lean  meat  is  boiled,  it  may 
easily  be  torn  into  stringy  pieces  of  muscle  fibers.  These 
vary  in  length,  according  to  the  muscle  or  class  of  animal, 
and  they  also  differ  in  strength  or  toughness,  according  to 
age  and  use.  Age  and  work  tend  to  make  the  meat  fiber 
hard  and  dense.  This  explains  why  the  meat  of  the  back, 
where  little  used,  is  more  tender  than  that  of  the  thick  leg 
muscle,  which  is  much  used.  These  fibers  make  up  the 
lean  meat  of  the  body.  However,  they  have  more  or  less 
fine  particles  of  fat  distributed  among  them.  When  de- 
veloped to  a  noticeable  extent,  these  unite  into  little  groups 
of  fat  distributed  through  lean  meat,  giving  it  what  is 
called  a  "marbled"  appearance,  a  condition  found  in  well- 
fattened  animals.  Meat  that  has  fat  particles  well  dis- 
tributed among  the  fibers,  when  cooked,  should  be  su- 
perior in  flavor  and  tenderness,  due  to  the  softening  effect 
of  the  fat.  When  beef  animals  are  well  fattened,  they  also 
store  layers  of  pure  fat  over  much  of  the  outer  part  of 
the  body,  just  below  the  skin,  especially  over  the  breast, 

218 


Fig.  120. — The  two  sides  of  a  beef  carcass.  1,  shank  ;  2,  round  ;  .".. 
rump ;  4a-45,  loin  end :  4c,  pin  bone  loin ;  5,  rib ;  6.  chuck ;  7,  flank : 
S.  plate:  9,  brisket:  10.  front  shank.  (Photo  by  courtesy  Drs.  Hobbs 
and  Brumley,  Ohio  State  University.) 


220  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

ribs,  back  and  hindquarters.  Fat  also  commonly  accumu- 
lates more  or  less  between  the  groups  of  prominent  muscles, 
and  on  the  intestines,  kidneys,  etc.  It  is  important  that 
this  layer-fat  be  smoothly  and  not  too  heavily  laid  over  the 
different  parts,  in  order  that  the  carcass  may  be  cut  up 
with  not  too  great  a  proportion  of  fat  to  lean,  or  in  other 
words  too  much  waste.  Hall  and  Bmmett  give1  the  fol- 
lowing amounts  of  lean,  visible  fat  and  bone  in  the  hind 
and  forequarters  of  beef: 

PART  or  CARCASS                       Per  cent.  Per  cent.  Per  cent, 

lean  visible  fat  bone 

Hindquarter 54.42             34.55  10.71 

Forequarter 59.12             26.69  13.73 

Experiments  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert  on  the  composition 
of  the  body  of  the  ox 2  show  the  half -fat  animal  to  contain 
the  following,  expressed  in  per  cents :  water  51.5 ;  dry  mat- 
ter 40.3;  protein  (lean  meat)  16.6;  fat  19.1,  and  ash  4.66. 

The  dressed  carcass  of  beef,  and  the  relationship  of  this 
to  the  live  animal,  should  be  understood  by  the  judge.  It 
is  important  to  estimate  reasonably  well  how  an  animal 
will  dress  out  in  killing,  and  what  will  be  the  nature  and 
value  of  the  meat  cuts.  The  market  pays  its  highest  price 
for  the  carcass  that  will  dress  out  at  slaughter  with  the 
least  waste,  and  that  will  cut  up  into  the  greatest  per- 
centage of  parts  which  command  the  best  prices. 

The  per  cent  of  carcass  to  live  weight  in  fat  cattle  varies 
from  55  to  70  per  cent,  though  more  extreme  figures  are 
occasionally  recorded.  Ordinarily,  the  fatter  an  animal, 
the  less  water  the  body  will  contain,  and  the  greater  the 
per  cent  of  dressed  meat.  Young  cattle  usually  dress  out 
with  more  waste  than  do  older  ones.  Numerous  slaughter 
tests  of  beef  cattle  reported  by  Henry,3  quoted  from  British 
and  American  sources,  show  the  per  cent  of  dressed  meat 

1  Bulletin  158,  Illinois  Agr.  Experiment  Station,  1912,  p.  145. 

2  Journal  Royal  Agr.  Society  of  England,   1898. 

3  Feeds  and  Feeding,  1910,  pp.  323,  329. 


THE   BEEF   CARCASS   AND   ITS   CUTS  221 

to  live  weight  to  vary  from  63.9  to  69.38  per  cent.  A 
common  grade  of  cattle  would  be  very  likely  to  show  less 
than  60  per  cent  dressed  meat  under  ordinary  conditions 
of  feeding,  while  a  good  grade,  well  fattened,  should  yield 
at  least  65  per  cent. 

The  influence  of  the  breed  on  the  carcass  is  shown  in 
several  ways.  In  a  recognized  beef  breed,  such  as  the 
Aberdeen  Angus,  the  carcass  is  thicker  in  its  structure, 
with  the  fat  distributed  among  and  over  the  muscles  in  the 
most  desirable  way.  Cattle  of  other  than  the  beef  type 
yield  a  thinner  kind  of  carcass,  deficient  in  the  distribution 
of  fat  about  the  muscles,  but  with  an  excess  of  fat  about 
the  intestines  and  kidneys.  Such  carcasses  cut  up  into  a 
maximum  of  low-priced  parts.  For  this  reason  the  butcher 
prefers  to  purchase  examples  of  the  beef  breeds,  because 
from  them  he  will  secure  the  greatest  percentage  of  what 
the  market  demands,  and  will  also  suffer  less  loss  in  offal. 

Carcass  beef  refers  to  that  which  is  the  direct  product 
from  the  slaughter  houses  before  being  divided  into  the 
smaller  wholesale  parts.  The  entire  carcass,  split  through 
the  length  of  the  spine,  furnishes  two  sides  of  beef.  Each 
side  is  divided,  usually  between  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
ribs,  thus  forming  a  fore  and  hindquarter.  The  fore- 
quarter  weighs  about  52  per  cent  and  the  hindquarter  48 
per  cent  of  the  entire  side.  "When  a  side  of  beef  is  thick 
enough  fleshed  to  be  cut  up  in  the  retail  trade,  and  sold 
over  the  butcher's  block,  it  is  known  as  " block  beef"  or 
"side  beef."  If  not  thick  enough  in  muscle  and  fat,  the 
carcass  is  used  in  a  class  of  trade  where  only  a  part  of  it 
is  sold  over  the  block,  in  which  case  it  is  termed  a  ' '  cutter, ' ' 
and  is  cut  up  for  the  low-priced  customers.  The  side  of 
the  carcass  of  beef  is  cut  into  important  smaller  parts.  For 
the  purpose  of  mental  calculations  as  to  the  cutting  value 
per  pound  of  side-beef,  says  Hall,4  "a  carcass  is  regarded 
as  consisting  of  four  parts  which  are  approximately  equal 

*  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Meat.  Louis  D.  Hall,  Bulletin  147,  111.  Agr. 
Exp.  Station,  1910. 


222 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


in  weight,  viz.,  (1)  loins  and  ribs,  (2)  rounds,  (3)  chucks, 
and  (4)  plates,  flanks,  shanks  and  suet.  They  are  here 
arranged  in  their  relative  order  of  market  value.  The 
hindquarter  is  regarded  as  consisting  of  50  per  cent  round, 
35  loin,  and  15  flank  and  suet;  the  forequarter  50  per 
cent  chuck,  20  rib,  and  30  plate  and  shank.  These  propor- 
tions and  cuts  especially  apply  to  Chicago  standards.  Car- 
casses are  cut  in  some  eastern  markets,  and  in  Europe, 
so  as  to  37ield  somewhat  different  results. 

The  loin  includes  from  the  end  of  the  hindquarter,  with 


Fig.  121. — A  piece  from  the  loin — the  porterhouse. 
Haskett,  Ohio  State  University.) 


(Photo  by  F.  H. 


its  one  rib,  to  a  line  extending  from  the  middle  of  the 
sacrum  to  a  point  an  inch  or  two  above  the  stifle  joint. 
This  piece  includes  what  are  recognized  as  the  choicest  cuts, 
the  porterhouse  and  sirloin,  which  accounts  for  its  having 
first  rank  as  to  price.  The  tenderloin  muscle  also  lies  on 
the  underside  of  this  cut.  There  are  several  grades  of 
loins.  The  best,  No.  1,  Hall  states,  "must  have  a  full, 
well-rounded  shape,  a  complete  covering  of  white  fat,  the 
thickness  of  which  is  in  proper  proportion  to  the  lean  and 
bright,  firm,  fine-grained,  well-marbled  flesh."  A  No.  1 
loin  weighs  from  50  to  85  pounds. 


THE    BEEF   CARCASS    AND    ITS   CUTS  'j-j;; 

The  rib  piece  is  cut  from  the  Ion-quarter  so  as  to  in- 
clude ribs  from  six  to  twelve,  or  seven  in  all.  This  cut 
contains  the  choicest  roasting  pieces.  Ribs  differ  in  thick- 
ness and  condition,  and  so  are  graded  on  much  the  same 
basis  as  the  loin.  The  size  and  character  of  the  "eye"  of 
red  meat,  where  the  rib  and  backbone  join,  furnish  evidence 


Fig.  122. — "The  rib  piece  is  cut  from  the  forequarter  so  as  to  include 
ribs  from  six  to  twelve."  (Photo  by  Mr.  F.  II.  Haskett,  Ohio  State 
University.) 

of  the  value  of  this  piece.  No.  1  ribs  should  also  have  a 
covering  of  about  one-half  inch  fat.  An  average-sized,  full 
rib  piece  weighs  from  30  to  50  pounds. 

The  round  is  the  leg  end  of  the  hindquarter,  after  the 
loin  is  removed.  This  is  the  largest  muscle  in  the  carcass, 
and  derives  its  name  from  its  more  or  less  round  form  in 
certain  stages  of  cutting.  This  part  contains  a  large  per 
cent  of  lean  meat,  and  is  one  of  the  tougher  cuts,  owing 
to  the  great  use  of  this  muscle.  The  meat  from  this  part 
is  of  medium  price,  but  owing  to  the  small  per  cent  of  bone 


224  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

and  fat,  it  is  one  of  the  most  economical  pieces  to  pur- 
chase. About  20  per  cent,  of  the  upper  part  of  the  round 
is  the  rump,  which  is  used  for  roasts  of  grade  inferior  to 
ribs ;  60  per  cent  is  buttock,  the  round  part,  which  is  com- 
monly sliced  for  steak ;  and  20  per  cent  at  the  lower  or  hock 
end  is  shank,  and  is  used  for  boiling,  Hamburger  steak,  etc. 
No.  1  rounds  should  be  plump,  well  covered  with  smooth 


Fig.  123. — The,  round.  "This  is  the  largest  muscle  in  the  carcass,  and 
derives  its  name  from  its  more  or  less  round  form  in  certain  stages  ot 
cutting."  (Photo  by  F.  H.  Haskett,  Ohio  State  University.) 

white  fat,  and  cut  into  bright,  firm,  fine-grained  meat.    An 
average  first  grade  round  will  weigh  75  to  110  pounds. 

The  chuck  piece  includes  the  five  front  ribs,  the  shoulder 
and  neck.  "When  trimmed,  the  neck,  the  brisket  and  lower 
ends  of  ribs  (from  which  the  plate  is  obtained)  are  re- 
moved. The  chuck,  to  be  of  first  grade,  must  be  thick,  of 
full  outline,  and  show  good  color  and  grain  of  flesh.  Only 
a  moderate  amount  of  fat  is  looked  for  on  this  piece,  and 


THE   BEEF   CARCASS   AND   ITS   CUTS  225 

it  should  be  thickest  at  the  rib  end.  Roast,  steaks  and 
boiling  pieces  come  from  this  part.  The  thicker  the  chuck, 
the  more  available  it  becomes  for  roast  cuts.  The  best 
grades  of  average  size  chucks  weigh  75  to  110  pounds. 

The  plate  piece  is  the  lower  part  of  the  forequarter,  in- 
cluding the  ends  of  the  ribs  and  the  brisket.  Thickness  and 
a  proper  admixture  of  fat  and  lean,  with  not  too  heavy  bone, 
is  necessary  for  the  best  grades  of  plates.  This  cut  is  used 
for  corned  beef,  stews,  beef  rolls,  etc.  No.  1  average  weight 
plates  range  from  40  to  80  pounds. 

The  flank  piece  is  a  small  strip,  free  of  bone,  weighing 
15  to  20  pounds,  that  is,  trimmed  from  the  lower  edge  of 
the  hindquarter,  in  narrow  wedge-shaped  form. 

The  shank  piece  is  a  short  section  of  either  front  or  hind 
leg,  including  the  hindquarter  at  and  just  above  the  hock 
joint,  and  the  leg  part  proper,  of  the  forequarter.  The 
shanks  weigh  from  10  to  20  pounds,  and  are  used  mostly 
for  boiling  pieces,  and  represent  the  cheapest  cut  in  the 
carcass. 

Grading-  the  carcass  of  beef  is  an  important  feature  of 
the  meat  trade.  All  carcasses  may  be  classified  into  four 
groups,  viz.,  steers,  heifers,  cows,  bulls  and  stags.  The 
carcasses  are  graded  within  each  class,  based  on  the  follow- 
ing essentials,  viz.,  form,  thickness,  finish,  quality,  sound- 
ness and  weight.  The  important  points  connected  with  this 
grading,  as  relates  to  judging  beef  type  are  as  follows  :5 

Form  of  beef  carcass  refers  to  the  general  outlines  and 
proportions.  Ideal  conformation  consists  of  compactness, 
i.e.,,  good  width  in  proportion  to  length ;  short  shanks  and 
neck ;  and  full  rounds,  loin  and  ribs.  Form  is  associated 
more  or  less  closely  with  a  proper  degree  of  thickness,  and 
is  also  partially  dependent  upon  the  covering  or  finish  of 
carcass. 

Thickness  of  beef  carcass  refers  to  the  amount  of  lean 
flesh  it  carries.  Thick-meated  loin  and  ribs,  and  full,  com- 
pact rounds  and  chucks  are  essential.  "Built  like  a  cart 

5  Bulletin   147,   Illinois  Agr.   Experiment  Station,   July,    1910. 


226  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

horse"  describes  the  fleshing  demanded  in  high-grade  car- 
casses. There  is  a  clear  distinction  between  thickness  due 
to  fatness  and  that  due  to  muscular  flesh. 

Finish  of  beef  carcass  refers  to  the  amount  and  distri- 
bution of  fat  on  the  carcass,  and  to  the  quality  of  flesh 
so  far  as  it  depends  upon  the  degree  of  fatness.  This 
corresponds  to  condition  in  the  live  animal.  Perfect  finish 
involves  a  smooth  covering  of  firm  white  fat  over  the  en- 
tire carcass,  with  the  greatest  depth  along  the  back,  a 
covering  of  white  brittle  fat  on  medium-sized  kidneys,  and 
a  lining  of  fat  in  flakes  or  rolls  on  the  inner  surface  of  ribs. 
The  depth  of  fat  along  the  back  should  range  from  one- 
fourth  inch  on  500-pound  carcasses  to  three-fourths  inch 
on  those  of  900  pounds.  The  condition  of  the  rounds  and 
shanks  will  show  the  last  degree  of  finish.  The  fat  must 
not  be  excessive  at  any  point,  especially  over  loin  and  ribs, 
as  this  indicates  either  an  overdone  condition  or  a  tendency 
toward  a  thick,  crusty  covering,  without  good  marbling. 

Quality  of  beef  carcass  especially  relates  to  size,  color 
and  softness  of  bone,  smoothness  and  grain  of  flesh,  color 
and  general  appearance  of  carcass,  and  freedom  from 
coarseness.  Quality  depends  chiefly  on  smoothness,  grain 
and  color.  Rough,  uneven  flesh  detracts  from  the  appear- 
ance and  usefulness  of  the  beef.  Coarse-grained,  stringy, 
fibrous  flesh  is  usually  an  indication  of  poor  breeding,  ad- 
vanced age  or  improper  nourishment.  Grain  and  firmness 
are  lacking  in  immature  beef.  That  which  is  very  young 
seldom  has  "substance"  or  marbling,  and  is  high  in  per 
cent  of  water.  The  quality  of  bone  is  judged  from  the 
chine,  breastbone  and  ribs.  The  bones  should  be  as 
small  as  consistent  with  weight  of  carcass.  They  are  also 
an  important  indication  of  age.  The  fat  should  have  a 
clear  white,  color,  and  the  flesh  a  bright,  rich  red.  A  fiery 
red  carcass  indicates  that  the  blood  was  poorly  drained. 
Very  yellow  fat  is  an  indication  of  Jersey  or  Guernsey 
blood. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE  BY  SCALE  OF 

POINTS. 

Method  in  judging  the  beef  animal  is  of  prime  im- 
portance, and  the  scale  of  points  indicates  the  course  of 
observation.  In  British  shows  it  is  quite  customary  to 
start  the  judging  by  walking  the  cattle  about  a  ring,  with 
the  judge  in  the  center  to  make  observations  as  the  animals 
pass  by.  In  America  we  use  this  method  but  little,  doing 
most  of  the  examination  with  the  cattle  in  standing  posture. 
One  can  more  fairly  measure  the  merits  of  an  animal  if 
given  critical  examination  both  at  rest  and  walking.  Under 
the  walk  the  harmony  of  proportions  and  adjustment  of 
parts  are  more  clearly  seen  than  they  would  be  otherwise. 
When  at  rest  the  animal  should  stand  on  all  fours  with 
equal  ease,  each  leg  being  in  good  position,  so  that  the  back 
and  top  lines  show  to  best  advantage.  The  order  of  usual 


Fig.  124. — "When  at  rest  the  animal  should  stand  on  all  fours  with  equal 
ease,  each  leg  being  in  good  position." 

227 


228  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

procedure  is  to  make  a  general  examination  of  the  animals 
from  a  distance,  slowly  passing  around  and  surveying  them 
from  various  points  of  vantage.  Next  comes  a  careful 
inspection,  beginning  at  the  head,  gradually  working  back 
to  the  hindquarters,  considering  each  part  in  order,  as 
detailed  in  the  following  scale  of  points  for  a  fat  steer. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE  OR  STEER. 

Standard  of  Score  of 
SCALE  OF  POINTS  Perfect        Cattle 

Score        Studied 

A— GENERAL  'APPEARANCE,  38  Points:  /' 

Weight,   score   according  to   age.      At    12   months   850  /• 

!bs.,  at  24  months  1,250  Ibs.,  at  30  months  1,500  / 

Ibs 8  .  ./ . 

Form,  broad,  deep,  compact,  low  set,  top  and  underline 

straight 10  .... 

Quality,  fine  bone,  mellow,  elastic  hide,  soft  and  silky 

hair 10  

Condition,   deep,   even  covering  of  smooth,  firm  flesh, 

the  cod  and  flank  indicating  finish        .  .       .  .       .  .      10 

B  — HEAD  AND  NECK,  7  Points: 

Muzzle,  broad,  mouth  large,  nostrils  large 1 

Eyes,  large  and  bright,  with  placid  expression   .  .       .  .         1 
Face,    short,    wide, .  slightly   dished;    cheeks   fleshy;    jaw 

strong        1 

Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

Ears,  medium  size,  not  coarse,  well  set        1 

Neck,    thick,    short,    throat   clean,    blending  well    with 

shoulders 2 

C—  FOREQUARTERS,  9  Points : 

Shoulder  vein,   full  and  smooth 2 

Shoulders,  well  set,  compact  on  top,  smoothly  covered 

with  flesh 3 

Breast,  wide  and  full,  brisket  extending  forward,  with 

little  dewlap 2 

Legs,   straight,    short;    arm   full;    shank   fine,    smooth; 

toes  pointing  directly  forward        2 

D— BODY,  31  Points: 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  girth  large,  crops  full 5 

Back,  broad,  level,  thickly  and  smoothly  fleshed.  ...         8 

Loin,  broad,  thick 8 

Ribs,  long,  well  arched,  thickly  and  smoothly  fleshed .  .         8 
Flanks,  deep,  full,  underline  straight  from  front  to  rear        2 
E— HINDQUARTERS,   15  Points: 

Hips,   smoothly  covered,   not  wide  apart  nor  prominent        1 
Bump,   long,  wide,  level,  free  of  patchiness,   tail-head 

smooth 4 

Thighs,  thick,  broad,  deep,  full 4 

Twist,  deep,  full 4 

Legs,   well   placed,    short;    hocks   straight;    shank   fine 

and  smooth,  toes  pointing  straight  ahead      .  .       .  .        2 

Total .    100 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


229 


The  general  appearance  of  the  beef  animal  includes  its 
size,  weight,  form,  quality  and  condition.  These  several 
features  have  a  general  application  to  the  entire  animal, 
and  are  given  first  consideration.  It  is  natural  and  logical 
to  thus  take  measurement  of  the  animal  as  a  whole,  follow- 
ing this  by  a  study  of  the  parts  in  detail. 

Size  and  weight  are  two  features  that  naturally  are 
closely  associated.  The  demand,  to-day,  for  meat-producing 


Fig.  125. — The  Points  of  a  Beef  Animal. 

animals,  is  for  both  size  and  weight.  The  practical  breeder 
emphasizes  size.  He  seeks  a  beef  animal  with  enough  scale 
or  frame  to  have  a  certain  weight  at  a  given  age.  There- 
fore, it  must  be  conceded  that  if  an  animal  has  enough 
weight  for  its  age,  it  must  have  sufficient  size.  It  is  an 
interesting  fact,  however,  that  in  Great  Britain  in  times 
past,  beef  animals  have  not  as  a  rule  been  weighed  when 
sold  on  the  market,  as  in  America,  but  have  been  measured 
instead.  In  this  case  size  was  the  prime  factor,  measure- 
ments of  length  and  girth  of  body  enabling  one  to  figure 


230  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

out  weights  on  a  fairly  satisfactory  basis.  The  weight  of 
'beef  cattle  fitted  for  the  butcher  will  naturally  depend  on 
age  and  duration  of  feeding.  Breed  also  has  an  influence 
here,  for  the  larger  beef  breeds,  like  the  Shorthorn,  attain 
a  given  weight  somewhat  earlier  than  do  smaller  breeds. 
If  well  nourished  from  birth,  weights  of  850  pounds  at  12 
months,  1,250  pounds  at  24  months,  or  1,500  pounds  at  30 
months,  might  be  regarded  as  standards.  A  large  per  cent- 
age  of  the  animals  on  the  market,  however,  do  not  attain 
these  weights,  being  under,  rather  than  over  size.  Judges 
generally  discriminate  against  under-weight  animals,  and 
give  special  attention  to  this  subject.  All  fat  cattle  exhib- 
ited at  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition  are  weighed 
the  day  prior  to  showing  and  these  weights,  and  also  the 
ages,  are  clearly  indicated  on  large  cards  on  the  men 
holding  the  animals  in  the  ring.  Each  experienced  exhib- 
itor desires  to  bring  forward  sufficient  weight  for  age  to 
satisfy  the  judge.  Other  things  being  equal,  a  steer  weigh- 
ing 1,000  pounds  that  should  weigh  1,250,  might  well  be 
scored  off  50  per  cent  on  this  feature.  The  fact  is,  the  250 
pounds  shortage  in  weight  expresses  a  more  serious  lack 
here  than  the  score  card  indicates,  because  it  represents  an 
unnecessary  cost  in  production. 

The  general  form  of  the  beef  animal,  as  viewed  from  in 
front,  side  or  rear,  should  be  blocky  or  square  in  outline. 
Some  of  the  old  writers  on  beef  cattle  form,  dating  back 
over  a  century,  have  compared  the  body  with  the  rectangle, 
as  viewed  from  one  side,  or  with  the  square,  as  seen  from  in 
front  or  the  rear.  Such  comparison  naturally  applies  only 
to  the  bodv  proper,  leaving  head,  neck  and  legs  out  of 
consideration.  The  modern  standard  of  form  is  essen- 
tially the  same,  though  more  emphasis  perhaps  is  placed 
on  compactness.  As  one  surveys  the  animal  from  a  dis- 
tance, he  is  impressed  with  the  thickness  of  form  all  through, 
and  a  depth  of  body  much  in  excess  of  length  of  leg,  the 
entire  frame  being  covered  with  a  thick,  firm,  smooth  cov- 
ering of  flesh.  Long  neck  and  legs  cannot  be  part  of 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE        231 

good  beef  conformation.  The  low  set  body  is  an  absolutely 
necessary  feature  of  correct  beef  form.  In  this  study  of 
general  form,  the  opposite  lines  of  back  and  belly  should 
be  fairly  parallel,  and  a  similar  application  may  be  made 
of  the  side  lines  as  viewed  from  the  ends  or  above. 

Quality  in  the  beef  animal  is  indicated  by  fineness  of 
bone,  a  mellow  elastic  hide,  soft  silky  hair,  and  refined  de- 
velopment of  certain  parts,  such  as  head,  ears  and  joints. 
Any  unnecessary  heaviness  or  weight  of  bone,  means  too 
much  loss  at  slaughter  as  well  as  later  loss  in  the  retail 
meat  trade.  It  is  rarely  that  the  bone  is  subject  to  criti- 
cism for  being  too  fine,  but  rather  the  opposite.  The  soft, 
mellow  hide  is  one  of  the  most  important  indications  of  the 
profitable  feeder.  Through  the  hide  are  distributed  the 
fine  capillaries  that  convey  the  nutritive  material  of  the 
food  in  the  blood  and  deposit  it  where  needed  over  the 
body.  If  the  hide  is  hard  and  unyielding,  the  capillaries 
do  not  serve  their  purpose  to  best  advantage.  Grasped 
between  thumb  and  fingers,  the  skin  of  desirable  char- 
acter feels  mellow,  somewhat  thick  and  unctuous  or  fatty 
to  the  touch,  and  is  elastic,  pulling  easily  from  the  body, 
especially  back  of  the  shoulders  and  along  the  sides.  Such 
a  skin  gives  what  the  stockman  terms  a  "sappy"  look  to 
the  animal,  indicating  a  thriving  condition.  If  the  hide 
holds  tight  to  the  body  where  it  should  be  loose,  if  it  is 
thick  and  hard,  or  thin  and  "dry  and  papery"  as  it  is 
termed,  then  the  qualities  of  the  desirable  feeder  are  lack- 
ing. The  physical  condition  of  the  animal  naturally  af- 
fects the  skin,  and  sickness  may  cause  harshness  and  un- 
yielding character.  The  hide  is  in  greatest  perfection  under 
conditions  of  absolute  health  and  when  the  body  has  felt 
the  influence  of  good  feeding.  The  beef  animal  should  have 
a  skin  of  moderate  thickness,  but  not  too  heavy.  Beef 
cattlemen  prefer  a  hide  that  inclines  to  be  thick,  rather 
than  thin,  for  the  latter  is  not  associated  with  the  thickest 
laying  on  of  flesh.  Another  important  point  in  favor  of 
the  thicker  type  of  hide  is  the  protection  it  gives  the 


232 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


animal  in  winter  under  conditions  of  exposure.  The  Here- 
ford, famous  as  a  beef  breed,  has  a  notable  quality  and 
thickness  of  hide  which,  without  doubt,  has  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  value  of  these  cattle  on  the  range. 
The  hair  is  also  an  important  indicator  of  quality.  It 
should  be  fine  and  soft,  and  if  the  animal  is  in  good  condi- 
tion, there  will  often  be  a  lustre  or  sheen  to  the  hair,  indi- 
cating quality  of  a 
high  degree.  It  is 
not  unusual  to  see 
an  animal  in  the 
show  ring,  where 
the  coat  of  hair  re- 
flects light  to  such 
a  striking  extent  as 
to  make  the  indi- 
vidual conspicuous 
among  his  compan- 
ions. In  this  case 
there  is  always 
a  combination  of 
mellow  skin  and 
fine,  lustrous  hair. 
While  this  desirable 
condition  is  af- 
fected more  or  less  by  certain  feeds,  such  as  oil  meal  for 
example,  it  could  not  be  produced  without  quality  of  marked 
degree,  naturally  occurring  in  both  skin  and  hair.  Fine- 
ness of  hair  is  associated  with  thickness  of  coat  also.  The 
greater  the  number  of  hairs  on  a  square  inch  of  skin,  the 
thicker  and  finer  will  be  the  coat.  The  naturally  thick, 
fine  covering  of  hair  on  the  Hereford  or  Galloway  breeds 
furnish  much  warmth  and  protection  in  winter,  as  has  al- 
ready been  indicated.  The  length  and  coarseness  of  the 
hair  differs  according  to  location  on  the  body.  It  is  finest 
and  shortest  about  the  f  orequarters  and  over  the  sides,  and 
is  coarsest  and  longest  on  the  upper  part  of  head,  along  the 


Fig.  126. — "Grasped  between  thumb  and  fin- 
gers, the  skin  of  desirable  character  feels  mel- 
low." 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


233 


top  of  the  neck  and  about  the  thighs.  Among  the  beef 
breeds,  notably  Hereford  and  Galloway,  one  often  sees  two 
classes  of  hair  on  the  body,  a  very  thick,  fine  coat  lying 
beneath  a  much  longer  and  more  open  one.  This  thick 
"mossy  undercoat,"  as  it  is  often  termed,  being  somewhat 
oily,  easily  turns  the  heaviest  rains,  and  serves  an  important 
purpose  in  keeping  the  animal  dry  when  exposed  to  winter 


Fig.  127. — "One  often  sees  two  classes  of  hair  on  the  body,  a  very  thick, 
fine  coat  lying  beneath  a  much  longer  and  more  open  one." 

storms.  The  hair  is  also  an  indicator  of  health.  If  dry 
and  harsh,  curling  back  at  its  tips,  forming  what  is  known 
as  a  "staring  coat,"  it  is  evident  that  the  animal  is  not 
doing  well,  or  is  not  in  healthy  condition.  Cattle  suffering 
from  tuberculosis,  in  advanced  stage,  show  this  staring, 
lustreless  coat  of  hair.  Therefore,  the  degree  of  thrift  or 
health  is  easily  seen  by  the  qualified  judge,  as  he  glances 


234 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  128. — "With  the  fingers  close  together, 
the  judge  passes  the  hand  over  the  parts  where 
one  should  find  a  smooth,  thick,  firm  covering  of 
flesh." 


over  the  animal  be- 
fore him.  The  coat 
may  be  too  fine,  in- 
dicating lack  of 
constitution,  but 
this  is  not  at  all 
frequent.  Quality 
is  also  manifested 
in  the  size  of  head 
and  ear,  and  the 
coarseness  of 
joints.  The  head 
that  is  large  and 
heavy  in  compari- 
s  o  n  to  size  of 
body,  indicates 

lack  of  quality.  Big  joints  suggest  heavy  bone  and 
too  great  a  per  cent  of  offal  to  dressed  meat  at  slaughter. 
Large,  heavy  horns  also  indicate  coarseness.  Quality  is 
one  of  the  most  important  features  in  the  animal,  and  it 
perhaps  has  more  influence  on  the  price  paid  for  fat  cattle, 
than  any  other  one  thing  considered  by  the  buyer.  There- 
fore, the  judge 
should  attach  much 
importance  to  qual- 
ity, scoring  down 
severely  if  coarse- 
ness predominates. 
The  term  "con- 
dition, ' '  as  applied 
to  fat  animals,  re- 
fers to  the  degree 
and  character  of 
fat  or  covering  of 
flesh  over  the  body. 
The  judge  deter- 
mines the  condi- 


Fig.  129. — "Cattle  in  high  condition  frequently 
have  rolls  of  hard  fat  on  the  ribs." 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE       235 

tion  by  observation,  partly  by  means  of  the  eye,  and  partly 
through  the  sense  of  touch,  or  by  "handling,"  as  it  is 
termed.  In  the  latter  method,  with  the  fingers  close  together, 
the  judge  passes  the  hand  over  the  parts  where  one  should 
find  a  smooth,  thick,  firm  covering  of  flesh.  The  center  of 
back  along  over  the  spine,  the  shoulders  and  rib-covering  are 
lightly  pressed  upon  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  by  which 
means  the  depth  of  flesh,  its  firmness  and  uniformity  of 
covering  are  easily  determined.  Often  bare  spots  occur, 
with  little  flesh  over  the  bone.  An  animal  may  be  in  good 
condition,  ready  for  slaughter,  yet  bare  on  the  shoulder. 
Or  the  back  may  be  well  covered  its  entire  length,  yet  the 
lower  part  of  the  ribs  be  more  or  less  bare.  Cattle  in  high 
condition  frequently  have  rolls  of  hard  fat  on  the  ribs, 
back  and  rump,  especially  at  the  end  of  the  latter,  on 
each  side  of  the  tail  head,  which  in  consequence  takes  on  a 
" patchy,"  or  lumpy  appearance.  A  dimple  or  tie  in  the 
center  of  the  back,  due  to  a  short  ligament  connecting  skin 
and  backbone,  is  frequently  associated  with  high  condi- 
tion. This  dimple,  rolls  of  fat,  and  bareness  of  covering, 
all  combine  to  produce  a  carcass  that  will  not  dress  out  to 
the  greatest  advantage.  In  the  modern  show  ring,  the  con- 
dition demanded  is  a  smooth,  uniform  distribution  of  deep, 
firm  flesh,  with  no  roughness  at  any  point,  and  that  will 
furnish  cuts  the  exterior  of  which  will  be  well  laid  with 
flesh.  If  an  animal  is  in  high  condition  and  over-fat,  then 
the  flesh  is  soft  and  tallowy,  and  will  show  waste  and  too 
great  a  percentage  of  fat  in  the  carcass.  The  degree  of  con- 
dition or  finish  is  indicated  by  the  thickness  of  the  hind 
flank  when  grasped  in  the  hand,  by  the  amount  of  fat 
about  the  root  of  the  tongue,  as  seen  back  of  the  jaw,  and 
by  the  fullness  or  fatness  of  th*e  cod  l  of  the  steer.  The 
butcher  often  feels  of  the  covering  over  the  pin  bones  or 
ends  of  rump,  for  a  co-relationship  seems  to  exist  between 
this  covering  and  the  general  condition.  In  scoring  con- 
dition, one  might  discount  20  per  cent  for  an  animal 

1  The   scrotum  or  testicle  of  the  male  ox. 


236 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  130. — "The  degree  of  condition  or  finish  is  indicated  by  the  thickness 
of  the  hind  flank  when  grasped  in  the  hand." 

that  is  in  too  high  flesh,  or  the  same  amount  if  there  is  a 
lack  of  condition.  Inexperienced  judges  are  quite  liable 
to  favor  the  heavier  covering  of  flesh  and  approve  where  ex- 
perience would  say  fleshing  had  been  carried  too  far. 

The  subject  of  handling1  referred  to  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs  en  quality  and  condition,  has  long  been  con- 
sidered an  important  feature  of  the  work  of  the  cattle 
judge.  As  long  ago  as  1767  the  following  advice  on  this 
subject,  not  out  of  place  here,  was  given:2  "When  you 
see  your  beast,  in  the  general  shape  and  composure  of  his 
body,  shew  most  fair  and  beautiful,  each  member  being 
comely,  and  each  bone  covered  so  as  a  perfect  shape  re- 
quires, you  may  then  judge  the  beast  to  be  well  fed ;  espe- 
cially when  you  see  his  huckle  bones  round,  and  not  sharp ; 
his  ribs  smooth,  and  not  rough;  his  flanks  full,  his  nach 

2  The  Complete  Grazier,  2d  ed.,  London,  1767,  p.  29. 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


237 


thick,  and  his  cod  round.  When  you  perceive  this,  you  may 
handle  him,  and  feeling  him  upon  the  nethermost  ribs,  if 
you  perceive  the  skin  loose  and  soft  under  your  hand,  you 
may  be  assured  that  the  beast  is  well  fed  outwardly,  that  is, 
upon  the  bones.  You  may  then  lay  your  hands  upon  his 
round  huckle  bones,  and  if  they  feel  soft,  round  and  plump, 
you  may  be  assured  that  the  beast  is  well  fed  both  inwardly, 
and  outwardly,  that  is,  both  in  flesh  and  tallow.  Then  you 
may  handle  him  at  the  setting-on  of  his  tail,  and  if  that 
feels  big,  thick,  full  and  soft,  it  is  a  true  sign  that  the 
beast  is  very  well  fed  outwardly.  Then  handle  his  nach 
bones,  which  are  on  both  sides  the  setting-on  of  his  tail, 
and  if  they  feel  soft  and  loose,  that  is  a  sign  also  of  his 
being  well  fed.  Lastly,  you  may  handle  his  cod,  if  it  be  an 
ox,  and  the  navel,  if  it  be  a  cow;  and  if  they  feel  thick, 
round,  soft,  large  and  plump,  it  is  a  certain  sign  that  the 
beast  is  well  tallowed  within.  When  any  of  these  parts 


Fig.  131. — "Then  handle  his  nach  bones,  which  are  on 
both  sides  the  setting-on  of  the  tail." 


238 


JUDGING   FARM  ANIMALS 


or  members  handle  contrary  to  the  rules  above  given,  you 
may  then  make  a  contrary  judgment."  The  use  of  the 
hands  in  examining  animals  being  judged,  is  highly  im- 
portant, at  least  in  determining  the  depth  and  condition 
of  the  flesh.  However,  from  a  modern  view-point,  judges 
often  handle  to  an  unnecessary  degree,  and  the  tendency 
now  is  to  use  the  hands  as  little  as  possible  consistent  with 
arriving  at  sound  judgment. 

The  head  of  the  beef  animal,  in  general,  should  appear 
comparatively  short  and  broad,  as  this  represents  the  head 
conformation  of  the  good  feeder.  Such  a  head  is  correlated 
to  the  short  neck,  wide  back,  deep  body  and  short  legs. 
The  muzzle  should  be  broad  and  wide,  with  a  mouth  of  good 
feeding  capacity.  The  narrow,  pinched  mouth  will  be  found 
among  animals  with  narrow  heads  giving  evidence  of  lack 
in  constitution.  The  animal  with  wide,  capacious  muzzle 
and  muscular  lips,  when  on  pasture  grazes  more  easily, 
manipulates  the  tongue  more  freely,  and  secures  food  more 
readily  than  would  be  possible  with  a  smaller,  less  expansive 
mouth.  If  the  muzzle  is  broad,  then  the  nostrils  are  more 

likely  to  be  large, 
an  important  point, 
as  these  are  the 
gateways  through 
which  free  and  full 
admission  of  .air  to 
the  lungs  is  .se- 
cured. The  eyes 
should  be  fairly 
prominent  and 
placid  of  expres- 
sion, indicating  the 
quiet  feeder.  Many 
people  prefer  to 
see  the  whites  of 

Fig.  132. — "The  head  of  the  beef  animal,  in       ^he  6V6S   clear   and 
general,  should  appear  comparatively  short  and  ,, 

broad."  as  free  as  possible 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE        239 

of  brown  or  yellow  tints.  A  clear,  placid  eye  indicates 
quiet  temperament  and  a  disposition  to  fatten  easily. 
The  face  of  the  beef  animal  should  be  reasonably  broad 
in  proportion  to  its  length.  It  is,  this  part,  lying 
between  muzzle  and  eyes,  where  shortness  of  head  is  espe- 
cially to  be  desired,  for  the  length  here  largely  influences 
the  strength  of  jaw.  If  the  face  is  long  and  narrow,  two 
weaknesses  will  be  apparent,  first,  the  nasal  tubes  extend- 
ing from  the  nostrils  will  be  smaller,  thus  restricting  free- 
dom of  respiration,  and  second,  the  jaw  will  be  long  and 
weak,  a  feature  of  many  inferior  feeders.  A  face  that 
from  a  side  view  seems  slightly  depressed  just  below  the 
eyes,  or  "dished"  as  cattlemen  express  it,  has  long  been 
regarded  with  favor,  especially  if  short  and  wide,  for  this 
is  considered  a  strong  conformation.  The  cheeks  on  each 
side  of  the  face  should  be  wide,  smooth  and  fleshy,  indicat- 
ing a  strong  jaw.  The  underside  of  the  lower  jaw  should 
be  widely  spread  at  its  base,  an  evidence  of  strength,  as 
well  as  supplying  ample  room  for  the  tongue.  The  fore- 
head should  be  broad  and  full,  features  associated  with 
intelligence  and  pleasant  disposition.  The  narrow  fore- 
head is  likely  to  be  found  on  a  narrow,  long  head,  a  char- 
acteristic of  the  narrow,  long-bodied  animal.  Width  of 
forehead  should  be  especially  strong  just  over  the  eyes, 
with  a  very  gradual  narrowing  from  here  to  the  horns, 
though  in  case  of  a  polled  beast,  the  forehead  narrows 
quite  rapidly  to  a  well-defined  point.  The  upper  part  of 
forehead  or  poll  should  have  a  thick  covering  of  long, 
coarse  hair.  This  is  much  more  apparent  on  some  breeds 
than  others,  and  more  conspicuous  on  the  male  than  the 
female.  Ears  of  medium  size,  well  pointed  and  neatly 
attached  to  the  head,  meet  with  greatest  favor.  Large, 
heavy  ears,  coarse  at  the  attachment  to  the  head,  indicate 
a  general  coarseness.  Too  small,  delicate  ears,  on  the  con- 
trary, denote  over  refinement.  A  thick  covering  of  fine  hair 
is  desirable  on  the  ear,  with  long,  silky  hairs  adorning  the 
edges  and  bordering  the  outer  ear  cavity.  In  the  well- 


240  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

balanced  head,  the  ears  will  be  placed  so  that  when  erect, 
their  tips  will  hardly  extend  above  the  poll.  It  is  not 
unusual  for  ears  to  be  attached  so  high  on  the  head  as  to 
injure  the  harmony  of  proportions.  This  is  especially  to 
be  noticed  with  polled  cattle.  Cattle  naturally  carry  the 
ears  about  half  erect  and  pointing  forward.  If  naturally 
carried  in  a  depressed  position,  there  is  evidence  of  bad  dis- 
position or  ill  health.  Occasionally  the  horns  interfere  with 
a  natural  carriage  of  ear.  Horns  are  considered  a  disad- 
vantage by  many,  and,  in  fact,  under  conditions  of  domesti- 
cation, serve  110  special  economic  purpose.  They,  however, 
are  an  important  indicator  of  breed  character,  and  furnish 
some  evidence  as  to  age  and  quality.  From  a  breed  char- 
acter standpoint,  the  horn  is  quite  important.  There  is  a 
very  pronounced  difference  in  the  shape,  curvature  and 
color  of  the  horns  of  the  Hereford  and  Shorthorn.  The 
exhibitor  who  brings  into  the  show  ring  a  dehorned  ani- 
mal of  recognized  breed,  places  himself  at  a  disadvantage 
in  thus  presenting  a  head  robbed  of  a  part  of  its  distinctive 
breed  character. 

The  neck  of  the  beef  animal  should  be  short  and  thick. 
The  head  should  be  neatly  attached,  with  no  excess  of  skin 
or  fullness  about  the  jaw.  In  its  lower  part,  the  neck 
should  widen  out  and  blend  with  much  smoothness  into 
the  shoulder.  In  its  carriage,  the  neck  should  have 
a  top  line  that  very  slightly  rises  from  withers  to  base 
of  poll.  Males  should  have  necks  with  some  crest  and 
thickening  of  the  top  muscles,  but  even  this  need  not  in- 
terfere with  a  level  carriage  of  neck.  Some  animals  na- 
turally elevate  the  neck  more  than  others,  and  this  is  often 
referred  to  as  a  stylish  carriage.  Bulls  have  thick,  strong 
necks  that  are  more  or  less  arched.  Youatt  states  3  that 
' '  a  little  of  the  arched  form  of  neck  is  no  detriment  either 
to  his  appearance  or  his  actual  value,  although  common  con- 
sent seems  to  have  determined  that  the  line  from  the  horns 
to  the  withers  should  scarcely  deviate  from  the  back.  The 

3  Cattle,    I860,   p.    344. 


JUDGING   BEEF   TYPE   OF   CATTLE  241 

neck  of  the  beef  animal  being  for  meat  production,  it  should 
be  wide  rather  than  narrow  on  top,  for  the  thin  neck  is 
quite  sure  to  be  a  feature  of  the  narrow  type  of  animal." 
In  scoring  the  neck,  excess  of  length  is  sufficiently  objec- 
tionable to  justify  scoring  down  fairly  well.  A  neck  that 
is  too  thick  and  meaty  is  hardly  a  serious  fault. 

The  forequarters  of  the  beef  animal  should  present  a 
smoothly  laid,  flesh-covered  shoulder  and  wide,  full  bosom. 
What  is  termed  the  shoulder  vein  by  some  people,  and  the 
neck  vein  by  others,  is  the  place  where   the  shoulder  and 
neck  join,  just  in  front  of  the  point  of  the  shoulder.    In  a 
good  example  of  a  fat  animal,  it  is  difficult  to  decide  where 
the  neck  ends  and  the  shoulder  begins,  so  smooth  and  deep 
is  the  covering  of  flesh  here  and  so  slight  is  the  curve  of 
flesh  from  shoulder  to  neck.     Usually,  however,  there  is 
some  depression  just  in  front  of  the  shoulder,    the  neck 
lacking  naturally  in  thickness,  so  that  even  fattening  may 
not  produce  the  desired  smoothness.     The  shoulder  of  the 
beef  animal  should  incline  well  into  the  back.    Along  the 
length  of  the  shoulder  blade  is  a  ridge  which  furnishes  at- 
tachment for  the  muscles  covering  this  great  bone.     The 
more  erect  the  blade,  and  the   more  prominent  this  ridge, 
the  less  will  be  the  covering  of  flesh  possible  over  this  part. 
When  the  shoulder  is  "well  laid"  as  it  is  termed,  one  can 
feel  little  evidence  of  the  bone  below,  when  passing  the 
hand  over  the  shoulder  of  an  animal  in  good  condition. 
But  if  the  shoulder  is  not  well  laid,  then  there  will  be  prom- 
inence of  shoulder  top  at  what  is  termed  the  withers,  with 
more  or  less  roughness  over  the  shoulder.  It  is  also  common 
to  find  animals  in  condition  with  a  slight  bareness  at  some 
place  on  the  shoulder.    It  is  not  unusual  for  otherwise  ex- 
cellent show  steers  to  lack  in  this  particular  respect.    If  the 
tops  of  the  blades  along  the  back  line  are  widely  separated, 
it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  shoulders  have  too 
much  prominence,   and,  therefore,  will  lack  in  covering. 
The  character  of  the  shoulder  is  a  very  important  feature 
of  beef  cattle,  and  has  been  given  careful  attention  by  many 


242 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


r 


Fig.  133. — "When  the  shoulder  is  'well-laid,'  as 
it  is  termed,  one  can  feel  little  evidence  of  the 
bone  below." 


breeders.  The 
Hereford  breed  of 
cattle  is  noted  for 
its  beautiful, 
smooth  and  well- 
laid  shoulder,  dis- 
tinctly surpassing 
other  beef  breeds 
in  this  respect.  In 
judging  the  shoul- 
der, it  will  be  well 
to  keep  in  mind 
the  importance  of 
this  part  as  a  dis- 
tinctive feature  of 
beef  conformation, 
and  the  great  ne- 
cessity of  having  it  well  laid  and  smoothly  covered. 
The  breast  of  the  beef  animal  should  be  wide  and  full, 
with  the  brisket  wide  and  of  fair  prominence.  To  see 
the  breast  well,  one  must  stand  in  front  so  as  to  note  the 
placing  of  neck  between  the  shoulders,  and  the  width  of 
chest.  If  the  neck  is  thick  and  blends  into  the  shoulders 
right,  then  the  breast  will  present  both  width  and  fullness. 
The  brisket  extends  forward  between  the  legs,  merging 
with  the  lower  juncture  of  the  neck.  This  part  should  be 
wide,  with  a  distinct  groove  on  its  lower  side.  The  brisket 
occasionally,  with  mature  animals  in  high  condition,  pro- 
jects in  front  of  the  legs  in  a  very  prominent  and  undesir- 
able style,  and  may  be  only  12  or  15  inches  from  the  ground. 
A  neatly  rounded  upward  carriage  of  this  part  is  prefer- 
able, giving  evidence  of  flesh  production,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent, vigorous  constitution.  Youatt  makes  considerable  and 
interesting  comment  on  the  brisket.  He  states  4  that  ' '  it 
has  been  considered  as  a  part  of  the  anterior  wall  of  the 
chest,  and  as  a  proof  of  depth  and  capacity.  This  is  alto- 

4  Cattle,    1860,   p.    370. 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE        243 


Fig.  134. — "The  brisket  extends  forward  between  the  legs." 

gether  erroneous.  It  is  a  mere  appendix  to  the  chest.  It 
is  a  projection  of  substance,  partly  muscular,  but  more 
cellular  and  fatty,  from  the  anterior  and  movable  division 
or  head  of  the  sternum,  extending  sometimes  12  to  20  inches 
in  front  of  it,  and  dipping  downward  nearly  or  quite  as 
much.  It  is  no  proof  of  depth  of  chest.  It  is  found  in 
great  size  in  all  the  improved  cattle,  varying  in  size  in 
different  breeds,  and  in  different  cattle  of  the  same  breed ; 
and  it  was  always  looked  for  and  valued  in  the  better  speci- 
mens of  the  old  cattle.  It  is  very  probable  that  this  may 
be  carried  too  far.  An  enormously  projecting  brisket  may 
evince  a  more  than  usual  tendency  to  fatten;  but  not  in- 
frequently a  tendency  to  accumulate  that  fat  irregularly 
— to  have  it  too  much  in  patches,  and  not  spread  equally 
over  the  frame.  The  brisket  should  be  prominent  as  well 
as  deep;  perhaps  on  one  account  more  prominent  than 


244  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

deep,  for  it  will  then  be  more  likely,  either  before  or  by 
the  time  it  arrives  at  the  posterior  border  of  the  elbow 
or  forearm,  to  have  subsided  to  the  thickness  of  the  fatty 
and  other  substance  naturally  covering  the  sternum.  One 
defect,  but  not  of  half  the  consequence  which  it  is  generally 
supposed  to  be,  would  then  be  avoided — the  apparent  di- 
minution of  the  chest  at  the  girthing  place,  or  immediately 
behind  the  elbows."  Along  the  lower  side  of  the  neck, 
often  extending  to  the  brisket,  is  a  line  of  skin  known  as 
the  dewlap.  This  varies  greatly  in  prominence.  It  is 
sometimes  seen  on  Herefords  in  a  marked  degree,  adding 
greatly  to  the  depth  of  neck,  and  most  undesirably  so. 
This  characteristic  is  highly  developed  on  certain  breeds 
of  cattle  in  southern  Europe,  that  are  coarse  and  far  in- 
ferior to  the  British  breeds.  The  dewlap  is  simply  super- 
fluous skin,  and  its  presence  is  a  distinct  disadvantage,  and 
when  of  excess  development  an  indication  of  coarseness. 

The  front  legs  of  the  beef  animal  should  be  placed  wide 
apart,  and  should  be  short  and  straight.  A  wide  placing 
of  the  legs  provides  room  for  the  full  chest,  indicative  of 
strong  constitution.  Shortness  of  leg  is  desirable,  as  this 
part  gives  us  the  cheaper  meat.  A  short  leg  is  also  asso- 
ciated with  depth  of  body  as  a  rule,  an  important  requisite 
in  a  good  feeder.  The  upper  part  of  the  leg  above  the  knee, 
is  known  as  the  arm.  This  should  be  notably  wide  at  its 
connection  with  the  shoulder,  and  gradually  taper  to  the 
knee,  which  should  be  strong  and  wide  as  viewed  from  the 
side.  As  this  is  the  part  of  the  leg  furnishing  the  most 
meat,  it  should  show  as  much  width  and  muscular  char- 
acter as  possible.  The  leg  of  cattle  from  knee  to  ankle  is 
known  as  the  shank.  This  is  essentially  bone  and  ligaments, 
covered  with  skin,  having  but  small  food  value,  hence  the 
shank  may  well  be  much  shorter  than  the  arm  above.  In 
fact,  the  shortness  of  leg  is  usually  dependent  upon  the 
shortness  of  the  shank.  Further,  a  fine,  smooth  bone,  and 
medium-sized  joints  in  the  leg,  furnish  important  evidence 
of  quality,  as  already  discussed  on  this  subject.  The  feet 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE        245 

should  be  well  placed,  the  toes  being  of  medium  length  and 
pointing  forward.  The  natural  curves  of  the  leg  joints 
tend  to  direct  the  toes  outward,  but  the  wider  the  spread 
of  the  feet,  the  more  the  arm  will  be  thrown  in  against  the 
chest,  thus  crowding  that  part.  Therefore,  it  may  be  con- 
sidered that  there  is  a  direct  relationship  between  the 
position  of  the  feet  and  the  width  of  chest.  The  hoofs 
should  be  of  medium  length,  so  as  to  give  the  animal  level, 
true  footing.  If  the  hoofs  grow  too  long  the  toe  points 
will  turn  up  and  the  heels  will  come  down,  and  give  a 
weak  position  to  the  legs.  It  seems  strange  that  such  should 
be  the  case,  but  it  is  true  that  occasionally  one  will  see  ani- 
mals in  the  show  ring  with  such  abnormally  long  hoofs  as 
to  reflect  on  their  care.  Judges  should  discriminate  against 
such  animals. 

The  body  of  the  beef  animal,  giving  evidence  as  it  does 
of  constitution,  digestive  capacity  and  high-priced  cuts,  is 
credited  with  a  maximum  number  of  points  on  the  score 
card.  The  chest  should  be  deep  and  wide,  thus  providing 
ample  room  for  the  vital  organs — the  heart  and  lungs. 
The  chest,  as  measured  back  of  the  shoulders,  should  show 
a  strong  heart  girth.  In  a  cross  section  of  this  part,  a 
much  greater  curve  is  found  on  the  lower  side  of  the  chest 
than  over  the  top,  but  the  latter  should  have  as  much  width 
as  possible.  Just  back  of  the  shoulders,  over  the  upper 
part  of  chest,  but  below  the  back  line,  are  the  crops.  Here 
is  usually  to  be  found  some  depression,  which  is  associated 
with  thickness  of  chest  and  the  capacity  to  carry  flesh.  The 
model  beef  animal  will  be  full  and  strong  of  heart  girth, 
show  almost  no  perceptible  falling  away  at  the  crops,  and 
be  covered  here  with  a  smooth,  firm  layer  of  flesh.  This 
kind  of  conformation  is  much  sought  by  intelligent  cattle- 
men, who  recognize  that  it  is  associated  with  the  best 
feeders,  and  most  vigorous  animals,  which,  when  fattened, 
are  most  in  demand  on  the  market.  The  judge  will  be 
justified  in  placing  a  premium  on  chest  character.  The 
back  of  the  beef  animal  should  be  wide  and  level,  and  be 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


Fig.  135. — "Just  back  of  the  shoulders,  over  the  upper  part  of  the  chest,  but 
below  the  back  line,  are  the  crops." 

smoothly,  uniformly  and  deeply  covered  with  flesh.  Width, 
of  back  adds  to  its  strength  and  capacity  for  carrying  flesh. 
A  level  carriage  of  back  is  also  regarded  as  evidence  of 
strength,  although  cattle  buyers  care  little  whether  the  back 
is  level  or  not,  so  long  as  it  has  plenty  of  width  and  a 
smooth  covering  of  flesh.  The  back  of  young,  immature 
animals  should  be  well  carried,  and  the  judge  should  expect 
more  from  them  in  this  regard,  than  from  older  cattle 
where  sagging  of  the  back  may  be  due  to  age,  pregnancy, 
or  heaviness  of  belly.  The  first  essential  in  any  event,  is  a 
smooth,  deep,  uniform  covering  of  flesh,  indicated  to  the 
touch  as  the  fingers  gently  press  along  down  the  spine  and 
test  for  thickness  and  quality.  The  part  most  likely  to  be 
bare  is  over  the  shoulders  at  the  withers.  The  longer, 
higher  rising  bones  of  the  spine,  located  at  this  part  of 


JUDGING   BEEF  TYPE  OF   CATTLE 


247 


Fig.  136. — "The  back  of  the  beef  animal  should 
be  wide  and  level." 


the  back,  are  not 
fleshed  over  so 
deeply  or  readily 
as  over  the  remain- 
der of  the  back. 
The  loin  is  the  mus- 
cular portion  of 
the  back  that  lies 
just  in  front  of  the 
hips.  It  should  be 
broad  and  thick, 
and  give  evidence 
of  ample  strength. 
Any  depression 
here  is  undesirable, 
indicating  physical 
weakness,  the  kid- 
neys being  located 

directly  below  the  loin.  A  very  slight  arch  across  the  loin, 
so  that  not  the  slightest  depression  will  be  possible  just  in 
front  of  a  line  between  the  hips,  is  highly  desirable.  The 

loin  being  the  part 
of  the  back  from 
which  the  highest 
priced  meat  is  se- 
cured, should  log- 
ically be  as  broad 
and  heavy-fleshed 
as  possible. 

The  ribs  should 
be  long  and  widely 
arched.  A  combi- 
nation of  length 
and  arch  gives  a 
capacious  middle, 
with  ample  room 

Tig.  137. — "The  loin  is  the  muscular  portion  of        «       ,          ,         ,  , 

the  back  that  lies  just  in  front  of  the  hips."  «>*  heart  and  JungS. 


248 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


If  the  rib  is  not  well  arched,  or  ' '  well  sprung, ' '  as  the  stock- 
man expresses  it,  then  the  back  will  be  narrow,  and  lack  the 
width  necessary  to  secure  the  best  of  cuts.  The  spring  of  rib 
should  come  well  out  to  the  line  of  hips,  which  will  insure  a 
wide  loin  and  back.  Flatness  of  rib  and  depression  behind 
the  shoulders  indicates,  as  a  rule,  lack  of  constitution.  It  is 
not  necessarily  always  so,  however.  Some  animals  having 
long  ribs  as  viewed  from  the  side,  show  deep  middles  and 
large  digestive  capacity,  but  when  viewed  from  front  or 
rear,  present  a  decided  narrowness  of  back  due  to  flatness 
of  rib.  When  the  rib  is  both  short  and  flat,  then  we  have 
a  most  undesirable  conformation,  the  type  that  brings  the 
low  price  for  its  class.  It  is  highly  essential  that  the  ribs 
be  smoothly  and  deeply  covered  with  flesh.  As  previously 
stated,  the  lower  part  of  the  ribs  may  be  bare,  though  the 
back  be  well  covered.  The  judge  should  pass  his  hands 
over  the  ribs  and  feel  the  covering,  noting  its  depth,  firm- 
ness .and  smoothness,  and  the  way  it  is  packed  in  between 
the  ribs.  Beef  cattle  should  be  close-ribbed,  that  is,  the 
spaces  between  them  should  be  as  close  as  possible,  thereby 


Fig.  138.— Note  the  difference  in  depth  of  body  and  digestive  capacity  of 
these  two  beef  steers  that  are  of  exactly  the  same  age. 


JUDGING   BFKF    TYl'K   OF    (' ATTI.K  2|g 

giving  tin1  compact  frame.  In  scoring  the  ribs,  the  judge 
should  emphasize  the  necessity  of  length,  hut  from  a 
butcher's  point  of  view  a  wide,  well  covered  back  is  more 
important,  for  here  he  gets  his  valuable  cuts,  rather  than 
lower  down  on  the  ribs.  So  in  the  show  ring,  the  wide, 
well-covered  back  should  receive  more  credit  than  the  long 
rib  without  the  desired  arch.  The  flanks  also  are  indicators 
of  constitution,  capacity  and  condition.  The  full  front 
flank,  without  depression  back  of  the  arm,  is  associated 
with  a  wide,  strong  lower  chest,  and  good  constitution. 
The  rear  flank  that  is  well  let  down,  or  deep,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  goes  with  depth  of  body  and  feeding  capacity. 
Shallow  bodied,  short  ribbed  animals  are  always  high  in  the 
rear  flank.  From  a  side  view,  the  lower  line  of  body  from 
front  to  rear  flank  should  be  quite  low  and  straight.  This, 
of  course,  is  not  possible  always  with  old  animals,  that 
develop  some  paunchiness,  even  though  well  filled  in  the 
flanks.  The  hind  flank  of  beef  cattle  thickens  and  takes 
on  fat  as  feeding  progresses  and,  as  has  already  been  observ- 
ed, is  an  indicator  of  condition  or  finish.  Fat  cattle,  when 
walking,  show  a  bulging  fullness  in  the  hind  flank,  indi- 
cative of  finish  that  is  easily  seen  by  the  experienced  stock- 
man. 

The  hindquarters  of  the  beef  animal  represent  a  very 
important  meat-producing  part  of  the  body,  for  here  we 
find  the  greatest  percentage  of  meat  to  bone  to  be  found 
in  the  carcass.  Therefore,  beef  cattlemen  usually  take 
special  interest  in  the  conformation  of  this  part.  The  hips 
of  the  beef  animal,  sometimes  called  " hooks "  or  "huckle" 
bones,  should  be  of  good  size,  though  not  too  angular  and 
prominent.  Youatt  states5  that  "without  being  ragged 
(rough  or  angular),  they  should  be  large,  round  rather 
than  wide,  and  presenting,  when  handled,  plenty  of  muscle 
and  fat. ' '  They  should  be  well  placed  in  the  back,  and  on 
the  line  of  a  strong  arch  of  ribs.  The  ideal  condition  is  to 
have  them  smoothly  covered  with  flesh.  If  they  are  too 

6  Cattle,   1860,  p.   12. 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


wide  apart,  and  angular,  this  will  be  quite  unlikely,  and 
further,  will  give  evidence  of  coarseness.  The  rump  should 
be  long,  wide  and  level.  We  view  the  length  by  standing 
at  one  side,  and  from  this  view-point  also  note  whether  it 
extends  in  level  form  from  hips  to  end  of  body.  One  of 
the  common  defects  of  the  rump  is  to  droop  from  the  hips 
back,  thereby  reducing  the  flesh-carrying  capacity  of  the 

hindquarter.  Many 
judges  give  scant 
consideration  t  o 
droopy  rumped 
animals,  very  cor- 
rectly regarding 
this  as  bad  confor- 
mation, and  sadly 
marring  true  ani- 
mal beauty.  As 
one  views  the  rump 
from  the  rear,  it 
should  taper  but 
gradually  from 


£J 


Fig.  139. — "The  rump  should  be  Ions,  wide 
and  level.  We  view  the  length  by  standing  at 
one  side." 


hips  to  point  of 
rump,  being  of 
good  width  be- 
tween the  pin  bones  or  points  of  the  ischium.  The  na- 
tural tendency  is  for  the  rump  to  slope  away  on  each  side 
from  the  spine,  but  this  should  be  only  to  a  slight  extent. 
The  more  sloping  the  rump  in  any  respect,  the  less  its 
meat-carrying  capacity.  In  other  words,  the  longer,  wider 
and  more  level  the  rump,  the  greater  the  yield  of  meat  on 
the  pelvis.  The  covering  of  flesh  over  the  rump  should 
be  smooth,  without  any  roughness  or  patches  of  fat,  a  fre- 
quent defect  of  this  part.  Many  fat  cattle  have  heavy 
lumps  on  the  ends  of  the  rump,  on  each  side  of  the  pin 
bones.  In  fact,  evidence  of  condition  soon  manifests  itself 
here.  Feeders  of  show  stock  often  find  their  cattle  accumu- 
lating such  lumps  of  tallow  on  the  rump  as  seriously  to 


JUDGING  BEEF  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


251 


affect  their  value  for  competition  in  these  days 
smoothness  of  fleshing  is  so  much  emphasized.  The  wise 
judge  will  discriminate  against  undue  roughness  of  rump 
covering.  The  tail  head  or  attachment  of  tail  to  body, 
should  be  on  the  general  level  line  of  back,  and  not  too 
prominent  nor  rough.  If  the  rump  itself  is  level,  the  tail 
attachment  will  probably  be  satisfactory.  Frequently  a 
nick  or  dent  is  seen 
in  the  spine  on  the 
rump,  or  where  it 
may  unite  with  the 
tail  head.  This 
does  not  add  to  the 
beauty  of  this  part, 
but  in  itself  is  no 
serious  defect,  and 
should  have  little 
bearing  on  the  de- 
cision of  a  judge, 
unless  competition 
is  close.  The  thigh 
of  the  beef  animal 
should  be  broad, 
thick,  deep  and 
full.  From  a  side 
view  the  breadth 

is  noted,  while  from  the  rear  we  note  its  thickness, 
its  depth  from  top  to  bottom,  and  its  general  plump 
and  meaty  character.  The  outline  of  the  thigh  along  its 
rear  side  should  show  quite  a  straight  drop  from  the  end 
of  the  rump  downward,  thus  giving  evidence  of  continuous 
breadth  to  the  top  of  the  lower  thigh,  which  should  be  short 
but  strongly  muscular.  The  distance  from  the  hip  to  the 
point  where  the  thigh  curves  in  to  form  the  lower  thigh 
should  be  comparatively  long.  A  long,  broad,  thick  upper 
1high,  in  good  condition,  will  yield  a  heavy  weight  of  one 
of  the  more  valuable  parts  of  the  carcass.  These  several 


Fig.  140. — Note  the  difference  in  thickness 
and  depth  of  thighs  iu  these  two  steers  of  equal 
age. 


252 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


factors  should  be  carefully  kept  in  mind  by  the  judge,  for, 
from  the  butcher 's  point  of  view,  a  well-covered  back  and 
heavy-fleshed  hindquarter  are  of  first  importance  in  beef 
production.  The  twist  is  the  part  of  the  hindquarter  where 
the  upper  and  lower  thighs  blend  together,  forming  a  curve 
on  the  inside  that  should  be  very  strongly  defined.  The 

more  pronounced  the  curve, 
the  thicker  fleshed  will  be  the 
thigh  just  above  this  point. 
It  is  desirable  to  have  the 
thighs  as  plump  as  possible 
from  top  to  bottom,  but  we 
may  find  hindquarters  nar- 
rower at  the  top,  and  thick 
and  full  below,  yet  with  strong 
twists.  It  is  not  unusual  to 
find  Aberdeen  Angus  cattle  of 
such  conformation.  On  the 
contrary,  the  Hereford  has  a 
natural  tendency  for  a  full 
development  high  up  on  the 
thigh,  with  a  paring  away  of 
the  lower  thigh,  and  lack  of 
fullness  of  twist.  It  is  equal- 
ly important  that  the  thigh  be 
fully  fleshed  above  and  below. 

The  legs  should  be  well  placed  and  short,  the  same  argument 
as  to  position  of  legs  and  feet  applying  to  the  hind  as  to 
front  limbs.  If  the  hocks  are  straight,  and  point  directly  back, 
with  four  or  five  inches  of  space  between,  the  toes  will  point 
forward,  in  good  form,  and  ample  room  for  thickness  of  thigh 
will  exist.  When  the  hocks  crowd  close  together,  the  toes  point 
outward,  and  the  thighs  lack  in  thickness.  Neither  should 
the  legs  be  carried  too  far  beneath  the  body,  as  viewed  from 
the  side.  The  legs  as  a  whole  will  assume  a  very  true  and 
satisfactory  position,  if  a  plumb  line  dropped  from  the 
point  of  the  rump  touches  the  point  of  hock  and  falls 
nearly  parallel  with  the  back  side  of  the  shank  bone. 


Fig.  141.— "The  twist  is  the 
part  of  the  hindquarter  where  the 
upper  and  lower  thighs  bend  to- 
gether, forming  a  curve  on  the  in- 
side." 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

THE  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  BEEF  CATTLE. 

THE  judging  of  cattle  by  means  of  the  score  card  is  espe- 
cially applied  to  the  single  individual.  As  a  rule  the  card 
is  used  in  this  way  only,  although  occasionally  two  animals 
are  scored  in  a  comparative  way,  the  judge  examining  the 
same  features  in  order  with  each  animal,  and  scoring  the 
same.  This,  however,  is  a  slow  process  and  is  neither  satis- 
factory or  practical  in  comparative  judging.  If  not  in  the 
regular  show  yard,  a  ring  of  four  animals  makes  a  con- 
venient group  for  comparative  study.  These  should  be  of 
similar  age  and  character,  such  as  yearling  steers,  for  ex- 
ample, and  preferably  of  much  the  same  breed  type.  The 
judge  should  examine  them  as  they  stand  in  line  for  in- 
spection, but  also  as  they  pass  before  or  about  him  at  the 
walk.  Following  the  plan  of  the  scale  of  points,  the  cattle 
should  first  be  examined  as  to  their  general  appearance,  in 
which  case  the  weight,  form,  quality  and  condition  are  con- 
sidered, and  each  animal  is  compared  with  the  others.  The 
judge  receives  certain  impressions  in  this  first  general  ex- 
amination, that  will  influence  him  in  his  final  placings.  He 
stands  some  distance  away,  and  compares  the  animals  in  a 
comprehensive  way  that  is  not  possible  at  closer  range. 
He  walks  about  the  group,  surveying  and  comparing  at 
different  angles,  for  this  is  necessary  if  the  work  is  to  be 
carefully  done.  The  question  the  judge  asks  himself  all 
the  time  is,  how  near  does  each  animal  measure  up  to  the 
ideal  of  the  scale  of  points?  "Weight  he  recognizes  as  of 
distinct  importance,  considering  age,  but  beauty  of  form 
is  essential,  for  in  it  are  included  the  most  important  fea- 
tures sought  after  by  the  butcher.  If,  then,  the  animals 
are  compared  as  to  general  form,  they  can  hardly  be  ranked 
in  order  until  they  are  compared  as  to  quality  and  condi- 

253 


254  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

lion  and  their  readiness  for  the  block.  One  animal  might 
have  a  form  of  excellent  balance,  but  be  so  thin  in  flesh,  if 
fat  animals  are  up  for  comparison,  as  not  to  be  entitled 
to  as  high  rank  as  others  in  better  condition  for  killing. 
A  detailed  examination  and  comparison  is  necessary,  fol- 
lowing the  more  general  one.  It  is  desirable,  in  the  case 
of  cattle  for  slaughter,  to  go  over  each  animal  carefully, 
comparing  those  parts  the  butcher  most  emphasizes  and 
values.  Therefore,  a  study  of  the  backs,  as  to  width  and 
depth  of  covering,  and  a  comparison  of  hindquarters,  as  to 
flesh-carrying  capacity  and  thickness  and  depth  of  con- 
formation is  essential.  In  the  show  ring  where  competi- 
tion is  severe,  such  as  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Ex- 
position, it  is  impossible  to  win  with  a  fat  steer  that  is 
open  to  serious  criticism  of  back  or  hindquarter.  Plain- 
ness of  head  and  shoulder  might  be  overlooked  to  some 
extent,  but  not  of  the  more  essential  parts  from  the 
butcher's  standpoint.  The  covering  of  flesh  as  to  smooth- 
ness, depth  and  firmness,  will  also  receive  much  careful 
attention,  and  when  the  cattle  are  at  last  placed  in  their 
relative  order  of  merit,  it  will  be  found  that  condition  has 
had  a  very  important  part  in  the  placing.  No  set  rule  can 
be  applied  as  to  which  animal  should  be  placed  first.  It 
may  be  comparatively  easy  to  select  out  the  one  entitled 
to  first  rank,  and  perhaps  no  trouble  at  all  to  locate  the 
most  inferior  individual,  but  second  and  third  places  are 
frequently  difficult  to  decide.  The  second  animal  must 
be  compared  with  the  first,  and  for  well-defined  reasons 
given  its  place,  but  so  also  this  second  placing  over  the 
third  must  be  satisfactorily  made.  Certainly,  as  one  goes 
down  the  line,  after  making  the  placings,  each  individual 
in  order  of  rank  should  show  more  actual  merit  and  fewer 
defects  than  the  one  next  below  in  the  line.  Interesting 
and  profitable  comparative  study  of  certain  parts  may  be 
made.  For  example,  the  heads  and  necks  may  be  compared 
and  ranked  in  order  of  merit.  So,  in  the  same  way,  other 
parts  may  be  specially  compared,  as  the  bodies,  hind- 


COMPARATIVE   STUDY   OF    liUKK    CATTLE  'J.V, 

quarters,  condition  or  quality.  An  analysis  of  this  sorl, 
px's  farther  than  is  usual  in  most  comparative  judging, 
but  results  in  a  more  thorough  comparison  than  is  possible 
by  usual  methods,  and  is  well  worth  doing  when  time  and 
conditions  justify.  In  the  regular  show  ring,  when  herds 
are  shown  in  competition,  judges  frequently  re-group  them. 
Each  exhibitor's  herd  is  placed  in  a  single  file,  so  that  ani- 
mals of  the  same  sex  and  age  may  be  easily  compared.  For 


Fig.  142. — "Interesting  and  profitable  comparative  study  of  certain  parts 
may  be  made.  For  example,  the  heads  and  necks  may  be  compared  and 
ranked  in  order  of  merit." 

example,  if  four  herds  of  five  cattle  each,  consisting  of  bull, 
cow  three  years  old  or  over,  two-year  heifer,  yearling  heifer, 
and  heifer  calf  were  brought  in  the  ring,  each  herd  should, 
as  a  rule,  be  arranged  by  itself,  with  the  animals  lined 
up  side  by  side.  The  opportunity  for  examination  may  be 
greatly  improved  if  the  judge  requires  them  to  be  arranged 
so  that  each  bull  will  be  side  by  side,  and  the  same  for  the 
female  of  each  class,  thus  permitting  close  comparison.  In 
a  herd  contest  of  this  sort,  the  judge  must  first  take  into 
consideration  the  general  uniformity  of  the  animals  in  a 
herd,  and  their  closeness  to  the  approved  type.  Some  ex- 
hibitors have  an  impression  that  the  winnings  of  an  exhib- 
itor in  the  classes  should  regulate  the  winnings  of  the 


056  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

herds,  but  this  is  not  necessarily  so  at  all.  A  first  pri/e 
animal  in  class  might  have  hackbut  little  competition  in 
one  case,  yet  be  distinctly  inferior  to  a  third  prize  animal 
of  another  class,  that  had  secured  this  position  in  strong 
competition.  Therefore,  it  really  resolves  itself  into  plac- 
ing the  herds  so  that  they  are  arranged  in  order  of  merit 
as  a  whole,  including  uniformity  and  type  as  vital  factors. 

The  reasons  for  placing  beef  cattle  in  the  ring  may  be 
given  orally  or  in  writing.  For  some  years,  in  the  students ' 
judging  contests  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Ex- 
position, written  reasons  were  ^iven,  and  later  these  were 
discarded  for  oral  reasons.  In  either  case  it  is  highly  im- 
portant that  the  reasons  be  given  briefly  and  to  the  point. 
The  following  may  serve  as  an  example  of  written  reasons, 
as  applied  to  a  ring  of  four  steers  used  in  the  classroom. 

"I  placed  D  first,  because  in  general  beef  conformation 
he  meets  the  requirements  more  fully  than  A,  my  second 
choice.  D  is  wider  and  thicker  over  the  loins  than  A,  and 
also  is  longer,  wider  and  more  nearly  square  in  the  hind- 
quarters. D  is  hardly  so  attractive  as  A  in  head  and 
shoulders,  yet  his  firm,  smooth,  mellow  fleshing  and  fine 
handling  quality  indicate  him  to  be  the  most  profitable 
killer  in  the  ring.  His  entire  make-up  and  covering  of  flesh 
is  the  sort  the  butcher  wants.  I  placed  A  over  C,  because 
the  former  comes  closer  to  correct  type,  being  very  com- 
pact and  low  set,  and  much  neater  in  head,  neck  and 
shoulders  than  C.  A  is  especially  stronger  and  thicker 
fleshed  over  the  loin,  at  which  place  C  is  somewhat  de- 
ficient. While  C  surpasses  A  in  the  length,  width  and 
carriage  of  rump,  he  is  inferior  to  the  latter  in  his  cover- 
ing of  lower  ribs  and  thickness  of  quarters  and  develop- 
ment of  twist.  A  is  very  neat  in  his  middle  piece,  while  C 
inclines  somewhat  to  paunchiness,  which  promises  too  much 
waste  in  killing.  I  placed  B  last  because  he  is  not  a  good 
type  of  butcher 's  beast,  being  too  long  and  upstanding,  lack- 
ing condition,  and  showing  too  much  coarseness  ail  over.'* 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


JUDGING  STOCKER  OR  FEEDER  CATTLE. 

STOCKERS  or  feeders  represent  a  class  of  cattle  that  are 
thin  in  flesh,  yet  possess  the  essential  factors  which,  with 
time  and  feed,  will  produce  the  high-class  beef  animal.  That 
which  has  thus  far  been  described  of  beef  cattle,  relates 
to  the  finished  condition,  whether  for  butcher  or  show 
ring.  It  is  highly  essential  that  the  cattleman  or  judge 
should  be  able  to  select  thin  animals  that  will  feed  out 
satisfactorily.  In  fact  it  requires  far  more  discrimination 
to  judge  thin  cattle  than  it  does  those  that  are  finished. 
However,  the  same  essential  features  are  found  in  stockers 
and  feeders  that  are  found  in  the  others,  excepting  for 
differences  in  size  and  in  lack  of  condition.  Stockers  are 
young  cattle,  and  are  regarded  as  in  the  calf  class,  while 
feeders  are  more  mature,  and  are  the  sort  used  in  the  feed 
lot  for  immediate  feeding  and  fattening.  Men  rarely  buy 
feeders  that  weigh  under  800  pounds,  although  some  fancy 


Fig.  143. — "Feeders  are  more  mature  and  are  the  sort  used  in  the  feed 
lot."     (Photo  by  courtesy  Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

257 


258  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

stuff  is  occasionally  put  on  feed  that  weighs  around  500 
pounds,  being  turned  off  to  the  packer  at  about  twelve 
months,  weighing  around  800  pounds.  It  is  quite  a  com- 
mon custom,  however,  to  select  feeders  eighteen  months 
old  or  older,  and  weighing  from  900  to  1,000  pounds.  In 
judging  feeders,  certain  features  should  be  emphasized,  and 
for  reasons  already  given.  Breed  character  and  quality  are 
highly  important.  The  best  fat  cattle  of  to-day  on  the 
market  appear  the  equals  of  pure  breds  in  external  char- 
acteristics, arid  they  are  the  leading  prize-winners  in  the 
feeder  contests  at  the  shows.  The  general  form  should  be 
of  the  blocky  type,  low  set,  wide  on  top,  deep  in  the  flanks 
and  supported  on  short  legs.  The  head  should  be  short, 
with  all  the  requisites  of  the  good  feeder,  a  most  important 
point  in  this  kind  of  cattle.  Shortness  of  neck,  thickness 
of  chest  with  ample  space  between  the  forelegs,  a  deep  body 
or  long  rib,  a  wide,  long,  level  rump,  and  thick,  deep  thighs, 
are  features  to  be  sought  for  in  the  thin  animal.  Rough- 
ness of  shoulder,  depressed  or  saggy  back,  and  prominent 
hips  and.tailhead  are  objectionable.  Emphasize  quality, 
as  shown  in  the  mellow,  elastic,  fairly  thick  hide,  the  heavy, 
fine  coat  of  hair,  and  moderate  size  of  bone.  The  general 
quality  of  the  animal  is  seen  in  his  breed  character,  while  his 
handling  quality  is  especially  to  be  found  in  the  hide  and 
coat  of  hair.  From  either  side  or  end  point  of  view,  one 
notes  the  desirable  or  undesirable  characteristics,  just  as 
in  the  animal  in  condition.  But  it  must  be  remembered 
in  judging  thin  cattle,  that  a  well-made  frame  is  absolutely 
necessary,  if  a  high-class,  finished  product  is  ultimately  to 
come  from  it. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE  USED  FOR  BREEDING 
PURPOSES. 

THE  beef  animal,  for  breeding  purposes,  should  possess 
all  the  desirable  features  of  conformation  found  in  the  non- 
brrcding  animal  that  is  to  yield  a  maximum  of  returns  over 
the  block.  Comparison  of  a  prime  steer  and  a  superior 
type  of  breeding  bull,  will  show  a  close  resemblance  between 
them  in  form  and  quality.  The  breeding  animal,  however, 
must  possess  certain  characteristics  of  importance.  These 
are  the  distinctive  features  of  sex,  constitutional  vigor,  size, 
an  inheritance  of  natural  fleshing,  and  breed  character. 
Judges  will  differ  somewhat  in  their  relative  estimate  of 
values  of  these  characteristics.  The  following  discussion, 
however,  gives  first  consideration  to  sex. 

(A)— JUDGING  BEEF  BULLS. 

Sex  character  in  the  beef  bull  is  manifested  in  the  size 
and  character  of  head,  in  the  thickness  of  neck  and  frontal 
development,  the  sexual  organs,  and  temperament.  The 
head  of  the  bull  should  meet  all  the  requirements  of  the 
good  feeder,  but  what  is  most  important,  it  should  be  strong 
and  dominant  in  expression,  with  full  forehead,  expressive 
eyes,  strong  but  not  coarse  horns,  and  a  thick  covering  of 
hair  over  the  upper  portion  of  head.  Such  a  head,  proudly 
carried,  speaks  for  the  dominant  sire  and  constitutional 
vigor,  most  essential  features  of  the  male.  The  testimony  of 
generations  of  great  stockmen  emphasizes  the  fundamental 
importance  of  the  head  as  showing  sex  and  indicating  breed 
ing  capacity.  We  are  told  l  that  Thomas  Bates  was  so  ira- 

]  Shorthorn  Cattle.     Alvin  H.  Sanders,   1900,  p.  86. 

259 


260 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Pig.  144. — "Such  a  head,  proudly  carried, 
speaks  for  the  dominant  sire  and  constitutional 
vigor."  (Photo  by  courtesy  Mr.  J.  C.  Allen, 
Purdue  University.) 


pressed  by  the 
head  of  Belvedere 
(1706),  as  seen  by 
him  when  exposed 
through  a  stable 
window,  that  he 
determined  to  pur- 
chase him,  which 
he  did.  Bates  was 
one  of  the  great 
breeders  of  history, 
and  Belvedere  was 
one  of  the  great 
sires  used  in  the 
herd  a  t  Kirklev- 
ington.  "What  the 
intelligent  breeder 
desires  in  the  bull 's 
head,  the  equally 

wise  judge  must  require  in  the  show  ring.  Heads  lacking 
masculinity,  of  steery  character ;  or  long  and  narrow,  show- 
ing weak  constitution ;  or  coarse  and  heavy,  too  big  for  the 
body,  should  be  discriminated  against.  The  neck  of  the  bull 
should  be  strong  and  masculine,  distinctive  of  the  sex,  with 
a  thickness  and  arch  on  top  not  possessed  by  the  steer  or 
cow.  Breeders  differ  in  their  views  as  to  degree  of  arch  of 
neck,  some  preferring  less  than  others.  A  thick,  high  arch 
is  unnecessary;  one  of  moderate  degree  suffices  to  denote 
masculinity,  and  yet  furnishes  no  unnecessary  amount  of 
cheap  meat.  The  entire  front  development  of  the  neck, 
breast,  shoulders  and  chest  should  show  the  massive  and 
masculine  in  superior  degree.  So  also  should  the  hind- 
quarters appear  strong  and  stocky.  The  scrotum  or  testi- 
cles— male  sexual  organs — should  be  well  developed,  ajid 
the  presence  of  two  glands  of  equal  size  should  be  apparent 
in  this  sac.  The  absence  of  one  of  these  glands,  while  not 
necessarily  indicating  a  non-breeder,  is  looked  upon  with 


JUDGING  BREEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  261 

distinct  disfavor,  and  should  rule  an  animal  from  the  show 
ring  as  defective.  The  temperament  df  the  bull  is  also 
quite  distinctive  of  sex  character.  Through  it  he  shows  the 
power  of  self-assertion,  as  the  natural  leader  of  the  herd, 
and  his  carriage  should  be  bold  and  masculine,  rather  than 
mild  and  sexless  like  the  steer.  The  constitutional  vigor 
of  the  bull,  as  has  already  been  expressed,  is  shown  in  the 
head  and  neck.  However,  the  arch  and  depth  of  forerib, 
and  fullness  of  breast  and  chest,  are  regarded  as  of  first 
importance  in  indicating  constitution,  for  reasons  already 
given.  Stylish,  erect  carriage  of  head  and  neck,  usually 
expresses  strength  of  constitution,  while  a  low,  indifferent 
attitude  of  head  and  neck  indicate  lack  of  vigor  or  poor 
health.  Sex  character  and  constitution  are  essentially  of 
equal  importance,  for  a  male  lacking  either  of  these  would 
be  considered  inferior.  Size  in  the  bull,  or  weight  at  ma- 
turity, should  be  considerably  in  excess  of  that  of  the 
female.  Very  large  size  is  not  essential,  and  often  means 
coarseness.  Undersize  is  a  serious  objection,  because  the 
small  bull,  though  meeting  all  other  requirements  but  size, 
is  liable  to  sire  animals  that  will  never  reach  standard 
weights.  While  the  present  day  demands  considerable  size 
in  breeding  stock,  most  breeders  prefer  bulls  of  medium 
size,  possessing  much  quality.  A  beef  bull  weighing  2,200 
pounds  at  maturity,  not  in  high  condition,  might  be  con- 
sidered of  satisfactory  weight.  The  inheritance  of  natural 
flesh-carrying  quality  is  of  special  importance.  The  bull 
in  good  breeding  condition,  that  has  a  frame  smoothly 
covered  with  a  natural  layer  of  mellow  flesh,  may  be  ex- 
pected to  transmit  this  quality  to  his  offspring.  Further, 
such  a  covering,  consisting  largely  of  smoothly  laid-on 
muscle,  readily  takes  on  fat  and  reaches  a  high  degree 
of  condition.  The  tendency  in  the  beef  show  ring  is  to 
bring  in  breeding  cattle  in  high  condition.  This  is  unfor- 
tunate, as  it  is  often  at  the  expense  of  procreative  power 
after  the  show  season  is  over.  The  breeding  bull  should 
not  carry  the  high  condition  of  the  steer,  yet  should  show 


262  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

enough  fleshing  to  satisfy  reasonable  show  ring  require- 
ments. Breed  characteristics  are  an  essential  feature  of 
the  modern  sire.  There  is  no  argument  in  behalf  of  the 
use  of  grade  or  cross-bred  sires,  therefore,  the  bull  should 
possess  all  the  important  characteristics  of  the  breed  he 
represents.  Each  of  the  beef  breeds,  in  its  more  perfect 
development,  meets  the  requirements  of  superior  meat  pro- 
duction, but  the  presence  of  certain  color  markings  of  hair, 
and  details  of  conformation,  distinguishing  features  of 
the  breed,  and  evidences  of  the  right  kind  of  ancestry  are 
also  demanded.  The  presence  of  these  features  in  the  bull 
will  furnish  important  evidence  of  his  possible  power  of 
transmitting  these  desirable  qualities  to  his  offspring. 

(B)— JUDGING  BEEF  COWS. 

The  sex  character  of  the  beef  cow  is  especially  seen  in 
the  head,  neck,  form  of  body  and  udder.  The  head  should 
be  distinctly  feminine,  lacking  the  size  and  burly  character 
of  the  bull.  The  face  is  more  refined,  the  forehead  not  so 
broad,  the  eyes  milder,  and  the  horns  smaller  and  more 
refined.  In  fact,  refinement  of  head,  with  neatness  of  con- 
tour, are  essential  features.  The  neck  should  be  short  and 
of  moderate  thickness,  showing  plenty  of  beef  character, 
yet  lacking  the  heaviness  of  the  bull  and  the  thickness  of 
the  steer.  The  neck  is  an  important  indicator  of  feminine 
character,  and  judges  look  with  disfavor  upon  a  cow  with 
this  part  heavy  and  masculine.  The  neck  should  blend 
nicely  into  well-laid  shoulders,  but  the  cow  should  not  carry 
so  much  squareness  or  fullness  of  breast  and  shoulders  as 
the  bull.  The  space  between  the  forelegs  is  less,  the  arms 
are  not  so  broad  and  powerful,  and  the  shoulders  are  of 
lighter  build  than  with  the  bull.  Great  depth  of  chest  and 
strong  spring  of  forerib  is  sought  after.  The  udder  of  the 
beef  cow  is  not  expected  to  produce  as  much  milk  as  the 
dairy  cow,  but  it  should  show  both  size  and  capacity.  It 
should  be  nicely  extended  in  front  and  behind,  have  a  mel- 


JUDGING  BREEDING  BEEF  CATTLE 


263 


low,  elastic  consistency,  and  show  four  well-placed  teats  of 
sufficient  size  to  be  easily  grasped  in  the  hands.  Small 
udders,  showing  a  fleshy  character,  are  distinctly  undesir- 
able. In  passing  on  breeding  cows  of  the  beef  type,  judges 
do  not  place  enough  importance  on  the  udder  and  the  part  it 
plays  in  the  successful  development  of  the  herd.  The  best 
British  Shorthorn  breeders  of  to-day  give  special  attention 


Fig.  145. — "The  beef  cow  should  produce  an  ample  supply  of  milk  for  nurs- 
ing her  offspring."     (Photo  by  courtesy  Frank  Adler.) 

to  the  development  of  the  udder,  believing,  like  Thomas; 
Bates,  that  the  beef  cow  should  produce  an  ample  supply 
of  milk  for  nursing  her  offspring.  For  further  information 
on  the  udder  and  milk  secretion  see  pages  298  to  300.  The 
sex  character  of  the  female  is  shown  in  considerable  length 
of  body  and  depth  of  rib,  this  type  of  body  having  ca- 
pacity for  reproduction.  The  maternal  is  distinctly  ap- 
parent in  the  head,  neck  and  body  of  the  breeding  females, 
a  feminine  quality  that  is  absolutely  lacking  in  the  male 
or  unsexed  animal.  The  size  of  the  cow  should  tend  to  be 


264  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

large  rather  than  small.  Breeders  prefer  large  cows  of 
quality,  mated  to  medium-sized  bulls.  A  weight  of  1,600 
pounds  for  a  mature  cow  will  satisfy  most  breeders  and 
judges.  The  small  or  undersized  female  should  be  dis- 
criminated against,  because  scale  and  weight,  with  quality, 
are  associated  with  the  most  satisfactory  and  profitable 
results  of  reproduction.  The  presence  of  breed  type  or 
character  is  important  in  the  cow,  though  not  so  much  so 
as  in  the  case  of  the  male.  If  the  pure-bred  female  is 
under  consideration,  then  the  judge  must  attach  great  im- 
portance to  breed  characteristics.  Prepotency,  as  funda- 
mental in  breed  development,  cannot  be  maintained  unless 
breed  characteristics  are  emphasized  and  promoted  by  the 
breeder,  and  the  judge  in  the  show  ring.  Therefore,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  bull  the  judge  should  give  proper  recog- 
nition to  breed  type  and  character  when  judging  pure- 
bred females. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

DESCRIPTIVE  NOTES  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT 
BEEF  BREEDS. 

The  Shorthorn  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  northeastern 
England,  in  the  counties  of  Durham  and  York.  In  gen- 
eral this  is  regarded  as  a  beef  breed,  although  certain 
tribes  especially  given  to  milk  production  are  regarded  as 
dual-purpose,  and  termed  dairy  or  milking  Shorthorns. 
The  color  is  variable,  being  either  red,  white,  or  red  and 
white  in  spots,  or  roan,  the  latter  being  a  commingling  of 
red  and  white  hair  without  forming  solid  color.  In  size 
this  is  one  of  the  large  breeds,  mature  bulls  weigh  1,800 
to  2,200  pounds,  and  even  more,  with  2,000  a  desirable 
standard.  Cows  at  maturity  should  weigh  in  ordinary  flesh 
1,400  to  1,500  pounds.  Assuming  the  Shorthorn  to  be  a 
good  representative  of  the  beef  type,  it  has  certain  long 
recognized  characteristics.  The  horns  are  waxy  yellow  in 
color,  comparatively  small  and  short,  curving  in  at  the 
tips.  The  muzzle  should  be  flesh-colored,  though  smutty 
or  dark  muzzles  are  not  uncommon,  but  are  objectionable. 
The  shoulders  tend  to  be  somewhat  prominent  and  bare, 
and  frequently  a  deficiency  back  of  the  shoulders  is  to  be 
seen.  Yet  in  most  cases  the  rib  is  widely  sprung,  and  the 
body  shows  ample  thickness  and  depth.  The  hindquarters 
are  conspicuous  for  their  thickness  and  fullness  of  rump 
and  thigh.  Shorthorns  are  easy  keepers,  fatten  easily,  and 
tend  to  get  patchy  about  the  sides  and  tail  head.  The 
females  of  this  breed  produce  milk  more  abundantly  than 
those  of  other  beef  breeds.  In  fact,  the  females  of  the 
so-called  milking  Shorthorn  tribes  often  have  large  udders 
which  yield  heavily.  It  is  not  remarkable  for  a  milking 

265 


266 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  146. — Shorthorn  bull,  "Ringmaster,"  307899.     A  great  show  bull  and 
sire.     (Photo  by  courtesy  The  Farmer.) 

Shorthorn  to  produce  8,000  to  10,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a 
year.  There  is  no  .official  score  card  for  this  breed.  Tem- 
peramentally, Shorthorns  are  very  quiet  and  domestic. 

The  Polled  Durham  breed  of  cattle  is  a  hornless  Short- 
horn. Originally  coming  from  two  sources  of  ancestry,  yet 
in  each  case  essentially  of  Shorthorn  blood,  the  lines  of 
Polled  Durham  breeding  of  to-day  trace  back  to  pure-bred, 
hornless  Shorthorns.  Therefore,  the  distinctive  character- 
istics of  the  Polled  Durham  are  those  of  a  Shorthorn  with 
polled  head. 

The  Hereford  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  Herefordshire, 
England.  It  is  a  very  old  breed,  and  is  essentially  the  only 
one  kept  in  that  English  county.  It  is  distinctively  a  beef 
breed.  The  main  body  color  is  red,  ranging  from  light  to 
dark  shade,  with  white  face.  Solid  white  markings  usu- 
ally occur  on  the  legs  about  the  ankles,  the  lower  part  of 
belly,  brisket  and  neck,  top  of  neck,  withers,  and  brush  of 


THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  BEEF  BREEDS 


267 


tail.  Red  hair  often  occurs  about  the  eyes,  especially  with 
some  families.  This  is  one  of  the  large  beef  breeds,  com- 
p;i  ruble  in  size  with  the  Shorthorn.  Mature  bulls  often 
weigh  2,200  pounds,  and  females  1,500  pounds  or  more. 
Some  very  large  bulls  of  this  breed  have  been  recorded. 
Typical  Herefords  are  distinctly  beefy  in  character  and 
short  of  head,  with  waxy  yellow  horns,  which  come  from 
the  head  at  right  angles,  and  curve  forward  and  down- 
ward. Horns  also  frequently  curve  upward  at  the  tips, 
especially  with  the  females.  The  shoulder  blade,  as  a  rule,  is 
well  laid  in,  thus  forming  a  beautiful,  smooth,  nicely 
fleshed  shoulder,  a  distinctive  characteristic  of  this  breed. 
The  hindquarters  naturally  tend  to  be  somewhat  peaked 
at  the  rump,  and  thin  of  thigh.  During  the  past  fifteen 
or  twenty  years,  however,  these  deficiencies  have  been 
greatly  improved,  so  that  Herefords  with  wide  rumps  and 
thick  thighs  are  becoming  common.  This  breed  fattens 
easily  and  rapidly,  and  tends  to  be  more  or  less  patchy, 
especially  along  the  ribs  and  about  the  rump.  Dimples 
not  infrequently  occur  in  the  back.  The  coat  of  hair  is  usu- 
ally very  thick,  with  a  distinct  curly  character  in  winter. 


Fig.  147. — Hereford  bull,  "Diplomat"   (Imp.). 


268  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

In  temperament  the  Hereford  is  naturally  high-spirited 
and  very  active  and  better  adapted  to  large  pastures  and 
the  range  than  more  restricted  conditions.  This  breed  has 
no  equal  for  grazing  on  extensive  ranges.  In  general,  the 
Hereford  is  inferior  in  milk  production  and  rarely  shows 
an  udder  of  superior  form. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  HEREFORD  CATTLE. 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Hereford  Cattle  Breeders'  Association.) 

Points 

Color — Medium,   deep,   rich  red,   with  white   head,   breast,    belly,    crest, 

switch  and  ankles 5 

Objections:  White  back  of  crop,  Jiiffh  on  flank,  or  too  high  on  legs. 

Head — Forehead  broad  and  prominent ;  face  short,  slightly  tapering 
toward  nose;  muzzle  full;  nostrils  wide  and  open;  eyes  large  and 
expressive;  ears  of  medium  size,  well  set  and  well  covered  with  hair; 
horns  of  medium  size,  even  color,  coming  from  head  at  right  angles, 
set  on  level  with  crops,  back  and  tail  head,  curving  forward  and 
downward 8 

Throat — Clean,  without  any  excessive  development  of  loose  flesh  or  fat 

underneath        2 

Neck — Short,  neat,  spreading  out  to  meet  shoulders,  with  full  neck  vein, 
free  from  loose  skin.  (Males:  neck  muscular,  with  full  crest  ac- 
cording to  age)  2 

Shoulders — Straight,  round,  full,  smooth  and  well  covered;  top  of  shoul- 
der blades  slightly  below  vertebra,  good  width  on  top 6 

Chest — Wide,   deep,  round  and  full  just  back  of  shoulders 6 

Brisket — Deep  and  wide,  moderately  projecting,  free  from  flabbiness   .  .        2 

Hibs — Well  sprung  from  backbone,  close  together,  long  and  arched,  car- 
rying the  full  width  of  shoulders  and  deeply  and  smoothly  covered  8 

Back  and  Loin — Broad,  straight  and  heavily  covered  from  crops  to  hooks; 

hooks  moderately  wide   and  well   covered 10 

Bump — Long,  wide,  smooth  and  well  covered,  carrying  width  in  propor- 
tion to  width  of  back  and  hooks,  joining  smoothly  into  quarters  .  .  .  .  5 

Quarters — Long,  straight,  muscular,  full,  deep,  and  thick 4 

Thigh  and  twist — Full  and  thick,  carried  well  down  to  hocks 3 

Tail — Tail  head  level  with  line  of  back,  tail  dropping  at  right  angles  to 

back  line 1 

Underline — Straight,  flanks  deep  and  full 3 

Legs — Short,    straight   and   squarely  placed,   perpendicular  both  from   side 

and  end  view;  forearm  muscular,  bones  strong  and  clean  ....       .  .         6 

Flesh — Deep,    firm,    smooth,    uniformly    covering    all   parts    and   free    from 

patchiness         8 

Skin — Of  moderate  thickness,  mellow,  pliable  and  loose,  abundantly  cov- 
ered with  long,  thick,  silky  hair 6 

General  appearance — Vigorous,  compact  and  symmetrical.  Bulls  mascu- 
line and  possessing  an  abundance  of  quality  and  predominant  breed- 
ing characteristics.  Females  matronly,  roomy,  smooth,  showing  qual- 
ity and  feminine  appearance  throughout  10 

Weight — Age  and  condition  to  be   considered 5 

Total.  .  ..100 


THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  BEEF  BREEDS 


269 


The  Aberdeen-Angus  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  north- 
eastern Scotland,  especially  in  the  counties  of  Aberdeen, 
Kincardine,  and  Forfar.  It  is  a  pure  black,  hornless  breed 
of  distinctly  beef  type.  Occasionally  a  red  specimen,  of 
Aberdeen- Angus  occurs,  but  these  are  not  used  for  breed- 
ing purposes.  A  slight  amount  of  white  on  the  under  side 
back  of  the  navel  is  allowable,  especially  with  the  females, 
though  distinctly  objected  to  with  the  bulls.  The  Aberdeen- 


Fig.  148. — Aberdeen-Angus  bull,  champion  at  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  of  Scotland  Show. 

Angus,  for  size,  is  in  the  same  class  with  Shorthorn  and 
Hereford,  though  averaging  slightly  less  in  weight.  Mature 
bulls  in  fair  flesh,  usually  weigh  around  2,000  pounds,  and 
cows  about  1,400  pounds.  Good  examples  of  the  breed 
have  short,  wide  heads,  indicating  good  feeders,  with  polls 
coming  to  a  neat  point.  These  cattle  are  inclined  to  be 
prominent  of  shoulder  and  only  moderately  wide  of  back, 
the  loin  being  narrower  and  more  rounding  than  on  Short- 
horn or  Hereford.  The  depth  of  rib  is  excellent,  and  the 


270  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

body  which  tends  to  cylindrical  form,  as  a  rule  shows  large 
digestive  capacity.  The  rump  is  frequently  pared  off  on 
each  side,  and  the  tail  head  prominent,  but  the  thighs  are 
thick  and  heavily  fleshed.  The  fleshing  is  very  smooth  and 
unsurpassed  in  character.  The  coat  of  hair  is  not  so  long 
and  curly  as  with  the  Hereford,  being  ordinarily  of  a 
straight,  smooth  character.  There  are  some  excellent 
milkers  in  this  breed,  though  there  is  much  variation  in 


Fig.    149. — Galloway    steer,    breed    champion    at    International    Livestock 

Exposition. 

this  respect.    The  temperament  as  a  rule  is  rather  nervous, 
and  not  so  domestic  as  the  Shorthorn. 

The  Galloway  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  southwestern 
Scotland  in  Galloway.  This  is  a  black,  polled  breed,  and 
quite  comparable  with  the  Aberdeen-Angus,  but  hardly  so 
compact  nor  does  it  fatten  so  easily.  The  head  is  some- 
what longer  than  that  of  the  Aberdeen- Angus,  the  poll  is 
not  so  sharp,  and  the  ears  are  set  a  bit  farther  back  than 
with  other  breeds,  and  point  upward  and  forward.  Gallo- 


THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  BEEF  BREEDS      271 

ways  are  frequently  lacking  in  spring  of  rib,  and  incline 
to  length  and  slackness  of  back  and  prominence  of  tail- 
head.  They  are  also  more  leggy  than  the  Aberdeen-Angus. 
This  is  a  beef  breed  of  medium  size,  bulls  weighing  usually 
1,800  to  1,900  pounds,  and  mature  cows  1,200  to  1,400 
pounds.  These  cattle  fatten  slowly.  In  temperament  the 
Galloway  is  inclined  to  be  somewhat  nervous  and  restless. 
The  breed  is  especially  adapted  to  range  conditions.  A 
striking  feature  of  this  breed  is  the  coat  of  hair,  which  has 
two  lengths,  one  thick  and  short,  the  other  long  and  more 
curly.  In  winter  these  cattle  present  a  very  curly,  shaggy 
appearance.  Galloway  hides  are  highly  valued  for  rugs 
and  overcoats. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE   OF   CATTLE 
BY  SCALE  OF  POINTS. 

The  evolution  of  the  dairy  cow  undoubtedly  dates  back 
many  years.  The  breeding  of  cows  for  the  dairy  has  been 
conducted  for  some  centuries  in  Holland.  Cows  noted  for 
milk  production  were  taken  to  England  from  that  country 
long  ago.  Early  English  writings  in  referring  to  cattle, 
have  however  made  scant  reference  to  the  dairy  cow,  beef 
production  being  the  main  consideration.  In  one  notable 
English  agricultural  book,1  published  in  1767,  rules  are 
given  to  be  observed  in  buying  cattle.  "If  cows  for  the 
pail,"  says  the  author,  "let  them  also  be  young,  high  of 
stature,  and  long  bodied,  with  large  and  round  belly,  large, 
fair,  and  smooth  horns,  a  broad,  smooth  forehead,  udders 
white,  not  fleshy,  but  large  and  lank,  with  four  teats  and  no 
more." 

The  importance  of  dairy  cattle  type  as  associated  with 
milk  production,  received  special  attention  among  Ayrshire 
breeders  as  early  as  1811,  when  Aiton  referred  to  details 
of  conformation.2  Later  on  William  Harley,  in  1829,  in  a 
work  on  a  dairy  system3  emphasized  thin  shoulders  and 
large,  broad  hindquarters  on  the  dairy  cow.  In  1834  the 
introduction  on  the  Island  of  Jersey  of  the  first  scale  of 
points,  attracted  serious  attention  to  dairy  cow  conforma- 
tion and  its  improvement.  In  1853  a  prize  essay  in  Scot- 
land 4  dealing  with  the  details  of  type,  described  the  shoul- 
ders as  thin  on  top,  and  the  forequarters  as  thin  in  front 

1  The  Complete  Grazier,  2d  edition. 

2  A  Survey  of  Ayrshire,  Glasgow,  1811. 

3  The  Harleian  Dairy  System. 

*  Transactions  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society,  1866-7,  p.  106. 

272 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


273 


Fig.  150. — The  Point*  of  a  Dairy  Cow,  as  reproduced  upon  Ormsby  Jane 
Segis  Aaggie  150948,  champion  Holstein-Friesian  cow.  As  a  senior  four- 
year  old,  she  has  a  seven-day  record  of  44.4  Ibs.  butter.  (Photo  by 
courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 

and  gradually  increasing  in  depth  and  thickness  backward. 
Later,  in  1875,  Sturtevant  Bros,  of  Massachusetts,  in  dis- 
cussing Ayrshire  cattle  form,5  stated  that  "in  the  dairy 
breeds,  and  in  most  animals  particularly  adapted  to  milk 
giving,  there  is  a  tendency  toward  accumulation  of  a 
larger  part  of  the  weight  of  the  animal  in  the  rearmost 
half.  ...  As  judged  by  a  side  view  or  from  above,  there  is  a 
certain  wedge  form.  .  .  .  This  form  becomes  more  strongly 
marked  with  age  when  the  animal  has  been  abundantly 
supplied  with  food.  The  yearling  and  two-years'  old  may 
have  parallel  rather  than  diverging  lines  on  the  side  view." 
In  1875  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  adopted  the  scale 
of  points,  the  first  of  its  kind  officially  introduced  to  Amer- 
ica. The  introduction  of  the  practice  of  livestock  judging 

B  The  Dairy  Cow:  A  Monograph  on  the  Ayrshire  Breed  of  Cattle,  Boston, 
1875. 


274  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

in  the  agricultural  colleges  early  in  the  nineties,  put  into 
systematic  operation  lessons  in  judging  dairy  cattle  by  the 
score  card,  emphasizing  dairy  cow  type. 

The  function  of  the  dairy  cow  is  primarily  to  produce 
milk,  which  process  is  inseparably  associated  with  repro- 
duction. The  cow  that  is  a  non-breeder  soon  dries  off  and 
has  no  further  value  excepting  for  meat.  The  production 
of  milk  as  a  first  essential,  is  recognized  as  antagonistic 
to  the  development  of  flesh,  and  vice  versa.  It  is  true  that 
examples  may  be  found  of  cows  that  are  beefy  of  type,  that 
yield  large  milk  flows,  but  these  are  the  exception  and  not 
the  rule.  Long  continued  experience  on  the  part  of  prac- 
tical breeders  and  dairy  cattle  students,  has  conclusively 
demonstrated  that  milk  is  produced  at  the  expense  of  flesh. 
Generations  of  breeding  in  certain  lines  of  heredity  have 
resulted  in  a  great  development  of  this  function  of  milk 
secretion,  so  that  to-day  we  find  many  thousands  of  cows 
producing  remarkable  annual  yields  of  milk,  that  twenty- 
five  years  ago  would  have  been  considered  impossible. 

Method  in  judging  the  dairy  cow  follows  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  scale  of  points,  taking  into  consideration  gen- 
eral appearance  first,  following  this  by  detailed  examination 
in  order  from  head  to  hindquarters.  The  judge  views  the 
dairy  animal  at  rest  and  in  motion,  on  the  same  general 
plan  as  with  the  beef  animal,  but  does  not  handle  except- 
ing in  a  limited  degree.  The  skin  and  udder  are  the  only 
parts  that  require  the  attention  of  the  hands,  the  rest  of 
the  examination  being  conducted  by  the  eye.  Some  judges 
handle  the  spinal  column  and  feel  the  width  and  spac- 
ing of  the  ribs.  Dairy  cattle  judges,  however,  do  not 
handle  thin  cattle  as  much  as  do  those  passing  on  beef 
cattle.  In  European  shows  of  dairy  cattle  attended  by  the 
author,  some  of  which  were  very  large,  the  judges  did  not 
handle  the  udder  at  all.  One  well-known  judge,  who  has 
passed  on  many  important  dairy  cattle  exhibits  in  America, 
scarcely  touches  the  udder,  while  most  judges  in  this  coun- 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  A  DAIRY  COW. 

Standard  of  Score  of 
SCALE   OF   POINTS  Perfect  Cow 

Score          Judged 
A— GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  19  Points: 

Weight,  Estimated Actual 

Form,  suggesting  wedge  shape  from  side,  front  or  top  8  .... 

Quality,  skin  mellow  and  pliable,   secretions  abundant, 

yellow;  hair  fine,  abundant;  bone  fine 8  .... 

Temperament,  active,  disposition  gentle        3  .... 

]',— HEAD  AND  NECK,  7  Points: 

Muzzle,  broad,  nostrils  large 1  .... 

Eyes,  large,  mild,  bright        1  .... 

Face,  lean,  of  medium  length,  jaw  strong 1  .... 

Forehead,  broad,  slightly  dished 1  .... 

Ears,  medium  size,  well  set,  of  fine  texture 1  

Neck,    long,    lean,    neatly    attached    to    head    and    shoul- 
ders ;  light  dewlap 2  .... 

(' — FOREQUARTERS,  9  Points: 

Withers,  thin  and  lean 3  .... 

Shoulders,  light,  oblique,  not  fleshy      4  .... 

Legs,   short,  straight,   shank  fine,  fi><>t  well  placed       .  .  2  .... 

D — BODY,  20  Points: 

Chest,  deep,  girth  large,  wide  below,  crops  not  deeply 

depressed  f  f  6  .... 

Back,  lean,   strong,  vertebraa  well  defined      4  .... 

Loin,  broad,  level,  strong        4  .... 

Ribs,  long,  well  sprung  below,  giving  large  belly  ca- 
pacity    5  .... 

Flanks,  thin  and  deep 1  .... 

E— HINDQUARTERS,  13  Points: 

Hips,  wide  apart,  not  lower  than  spine        1 

Rump,  long,  wide,  comparatively  level,  pin  bones  wide 

apart 5  .... 

Tail,  long,  fine,  with  good  switch 1  .... 

Thighs,  long,  thin,  widely  separated         4 

Legs,  short,  straight,  shank  fine,  carried  well  apart    .  .  2  .... 

F — MAMMARY  DEVELOPMENT,  32  Points: 

Udder:  form,  large,  long,  the  rear  part  attached  high, 
front  part  extended  well  forward,  quarters  uni- 
form, not  deeply  grooved,  level  on  bottom  .  .  .  .  10  .... 

Udder:  quality,  smooth  and  mellow  to  pressure,  f-kin 

elastic  and  soft,  hair  silky 10  .... 

Teats,  of  convenient  size,  widely  separated  and  evenly 

placed  .  .  .  .  4  .... 

Milk  veins,  large,  long,  tortuous,  branching        .  .       .  .  6  .... 

Milk  wells,  large  and  easily  located 2  .... 

Total  points 100  .... 


276  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

try  give  it  a  critical  inspection.  The  dairy  cow.  as  a  milk- 
ing machine,  requires  a  more  detailed  examination  than  does 
the  animal  engaged  in  beef  production.  The  udder,  milk 
veins  and  wells  require  careful  investigation,  as  most  im- 
portant features  of  conformation. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  dairy  cow  includes  her 
weight  or  size,  the  form  as  a  whole,  her  quality  and  tempera- 
ment. These  features  the  judge  may  study  as  he  examines 
the  cattle  at  some  distance,  taking  in  the  entire  animal  at 
rest  and  walk.  As  a  dairy  animal,  she  should  impress  one 
as  lean  of  flesh,  somewhat  angular  of  frame,  the  front  part 
of  the  body  narrow,  widening  toward  the  rear  into  large, 
capacious  hindquarters.  This  lean,  angular  form,  heavier 
behind  than  in  front,  represents  the  wedge  shape,  which  is 
in  striding  contrast  to  the  blocky  conformation  of  the  beef- 
producing  animal. 

The  weight  or  size  of  the  dairy  cow  is  quite  dependent 
on  her  breeding.  If  she  represents  a  pure  line  of  ancestry, 
then  her  weight  will  depend  on  the  breed.  A  weight  of 
900  pounds  would  meet  all  requirements  in  case  of  a 
Jersey,  while  in  a  Holstein-Friesian  this  would  be  entirely 
too  light.  With  acceptable  weights  ranging  from  600 
pounds  with  the  Dexter  to  1,800  pounds  with  the  Holstein- 
Friesian,  it  is  not  desirable  to  establish  a  fixed  standard 
for  a  general  score  card.  It  is  desirable,  however,  for  the 
judge  to  estimate  the  weight  of  the  animal  scored,  making 
record  of  this,  and  weighing  later,  if  convenient.  One  agri- 
cultural college  states  on  its  score  card  that  the  dairy  cow 
should  not  weigh  less  than  800  pounds,  but  in  the  case  of 
the  Dexter  cow,  some  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  breed, 
with  remarkable  mammary  development,  have  weighed 
much  less  than  this.  Other  college  score  cards  entirely  ig- 
nore weight.  Standard  weights  of  Jersey  cows  range  from 
800  to  1,000  pounds;  the  Holstein-Friesian  must  weigh  at 
least  1,000  pounds  at  full  age,  and  score  at  least  75  points 
to  enter  the  advanced  registry;  the  Ayrshire  must  weigh 
not  less  than  1,000  pounds,  while  1,050  has  been  used  as  a 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


277 


Guernsey  standard.     These  weights  will  be  helpful  guides 
to  judges  under  certain  show  ring  conditions. 

The  form  or  type  of  the  dairy  cow  is  one  of  her  most 
distinguishing  features,  as  has  already  been  indicated. 
This  form,  for  the  use  of  a  better  term,  is  called  wedge- 
shaped,  and  an  ideal  example  of  a  dairy  cow  shows  a  triple 
wedge,  namely,  from  side,  front  and  top.  This  wedge  is 


HI  i 


f 


Fig.  151. — "It  will  be  noted  that  in  an  assumed  continuation  of  these 
lines  a  sufficient  distance  beyond  the  head,  they  would  meet  at  a  common 
point." 

thus  explained :  first,  if  the  upper  and  under  lines  of  the 
animal,  including  the  udder,  be  viewed  from  one  side,  it 
will  be  noted  that  in  an  assumed  continuation  of  these  lines 
a  sufficient  distance  beyond  the  head,  they  would  meet  at  a 
common  point.  In  other  words,  the  body  narrows,  wedge- 
like,  from  rear  to  front.  In  fact,  the  dairy  cow  stands  from 
half  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  lower  in  front  than  she 
does  at  the  hips.  Second,  when  standing  directly  in  front 
of  the  cow,  it  will  be  noted  that,  were  the  space  between 


278 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


the  points  of  the  shoulders  and  the  withers  above  enclosed 
in  straight  lines,  the  outline  would  be  of  wedge-like  form. 
Or,  if  one  will  stand  close  to  the  shoulder  and  look  down,  • 
he  will  note  this  same  wedge  in  the  combination  of  withers 
and  front  ribs.    Third,  another  wedge  may  be  obtained  by 

standing  behind 
the  cow  and  view- 
ing the  top  of  the 
back.  In  this  case 
the  point  of  the 
wedge  is  at  the 
withers,  and  its 

r  widest    part    the 

space  between  the 
points  of  the  hips. 
]M  The  fact  is,  the  en- 

^NMJH^r  tire  body  suggests 

F\|     s    \f*f*J  &    wedge     in    the 

widening  from 
front  to  hindquar- 
ters. Gay  has  sug- 
gested 6  a  fourth 
wedge,  with  the 
rump  for  the  base, 
and  the  light 
thighs,  "  concave 
from  both  side  and 
rear  view/'  forming  lines  inclining  downward  and  in- 
ward, wedge-like.  These  various  suggested  wedges,  sim- 
ply emphasize  two  features  of  the  dairy  cow,  a 
lean,  muscular  condition,  and  an  angular  conforma- 
tion. This  wedge  form  is  merely  relative,  having  the 
beef  form  for  comparison.  The  true  dairy  cow  is  lean  and 
angular,  therefore,  she  is  wedge-shaped,  a  conformation  as- 
sociated with  milk  production.  The  true  beef  cow  is  fleshy 
and  smooth  of  outline,  therefore,  her  form  approaches  a 


Fig.  152. — "It  will  be  noted  that,  were  the 
space  between  the  points  of  the  shoulders  and 
the  withers  above  enclosed  in  straight  lines, 
the  outline  would  be  of  wedge-like  form." 


fl  The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Liive  Stock,  1914,  p.  204. 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


279 


parallelogram,  a  conformation  associated  with  beef  produc- 
tion. Emphasis  should  be  made  here  of  the  fact  that, 
under  certain  conditions,  such  as  immaturity  or  being  in 
flesh  while  dry,  dairy  cattle  do  not  always  show  the  same 
type  that  they  will 
later  on.  As  stated 
by  Sturtevant  in 
1875  (p.  273),  the 
yearling  and  two- 
year  olds  may  have 
parallel  rather 
than  diverging 
lines  on  the  side 
view.  "While  judges 
of  dairy  cattle  in 
making  their  plac- 
ings,  usually  give 
preference  to 
young  cattle  of 
wedge  form,  this  is 
not  always  so.  Oc- 
casionally one  sees 
a  beautiful  heifer, 
with  most  attrac- 
tive mammary  de- 
velopment, that  is 
somewhat  thick  in 
front,  and  fleshy 
all  over,  simply  be- 
cause her  calf  fat  has  not  been  milked  off.  In  three 
months  such  a  heifer  may  possess  a  very  typical  wedge- 
shaped  conformation.  There  is  more  or  less  dis- 
cussion in  the  agricultural  press  and  among  dairy 
cattlemen,  on  the  relationship  of  form  to  function,  in 
which  there  naturally  is  diversity  of  opinion.  However, 
the  judge  must  keep  in  mind  that  without  ideals  and  stan- 
dards, it  will  be  as  utterly  impossible  to  arrive  anywhere  in 


Fig.  153. — "The  point  of  the  wedge  is  at  the 
withers,  and  its  widest  part  the  space  between 
the  points  of  the  hips." 


280 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


placing  a  ring  of  animals,  as  it  would  be  to  reach  a  harbor 
on  a  vessel  without  a  steering  gear.  Type  is  merely  an 
indicator,  based  on  average  results  secured  from  a  large 
number  of  individuals,  but  in  itself  is  no  guarantee  of 
production. 

Quality  in  the  dairy  cow  is  indicated  by  the  skin,  oily 
secretions,  hair,  bone,  joints  and  ears.  The  skin  should  be 
thinner  than  with  the  beef  cow,  but  equally  mellow  and 
perhaps  more  pliable.  If  grasped  along  the  ribs,  especially 
in  front,  it  will  often  ' l  handle  like  a  mole-skin, ' '  filling  the 
hand  with  a  soft  and  pliable  mass.  The  secretions  of  the 
dairy  animal  are  shown  in  the  oil  or  grease  to  be  found 
within  the  ears,  and  in  tne  skin,  especially  on  the  udder, 
the  inner  thighs  and  end  of  tail.  This  oil  is  usually  yellow 
in  color,  and  is  a  product  of  the  sebaceous  glands  in  the 
skin.  Dairy  cattlemen  attach  especial  significance  to  this 


|i 


1 


Fig.  154. — "If  grasped  along  the  ribs,   especially  In  front,  it  will   often 
'handle  like  a  mole-skin,'  filling  the  hand  with  a  soft  and  pliahle  mass." 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE     281 

oily  secretion  and  1o  the  color  of  the  skin,  horns  and  hoot's. 
A  notably  yellow  tint  is  assumed  to  indicate  that  the  milk 
and  butter  fat  will  be  more  yellow  than  where  this  color 
is  lacking.  In  the  scale  of  points  adopted  in  1899  by  the 
American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club,7  15  points  are  allowed  to 
indicate  color  of  milk,  as  seen  in  "skin,  deep  yellow  in  ear, 
on  end  of  bone  of  tail,  at  base  of  horns  and  body  gener- 
ally, hoofs  amber-colored."  This  yellow  color  is  unques- 
tionably important  evidence  as  to  the  color  of  the  butter 
fat,  especially  with  Channel  Island  cattle,  though  not  so 
much  so  with  the  Dutch  breeds.  Oily  secretion  is  also  an 
indicator  of  condition  of  health,  for  when  lacking,  the  skin 
will  usually  be  dry  and  hold  tight  to  the  ribs,  and  the  hair 
will  be  staring  and  lacking  in  lustre,  evidences  of  ill  health. 
Usually  an  examination  of  the  inside  of  ears,  the  sides  of 
the  udder,  the  color  of  teats,  and  the  skin  about  the  vulva 
just  beneath  the  tail  at  the  end  of  the  rump,  will  suffice 
to  determine  the  matter  of  color.  Handling  the  skin  will  give 
evidence  as  to  the  activity  of  the  secretions,  though  this  is 
not  necessary  with  the  experienced  judge.  The  hair  should 
be  fine  and  abundant.  Long,  fine  hairs  usually  occur  along 
the  edges  of  the  ears,  while  the  udder  is  covered  with  short, 
silky  hair.  The  entire  hair  covering,  excepting  along  the 
top  of  the  neck  and  poll,  and  on  the  tail,  should  lie  close 
to  the  skin,  rather  than  be  erect  and  staring.  The  hair 
should  also  have  a  sheen  or  glisten  under  favorable  con- 
ditions of  light,  showing  attractive  evidence  of  quality  and 
healthy  condition.  The  ~bone  of  the  dairy  animal  should  be 
fine,  indicative  of  quality,  just  as  with  beef  animals,  and 
for  the  added  reason  that  coarseness  of  bone  is  generally 
associated  with  inferior  milk  production.  Large  joints  and 
heaviness  of  shoulder  are  evidence  of  coarseness,  as  are  also 
large,  heavy  ears  set  high  on  the  head.  Quality  is  one  of 
the  most  important  factors  to  be  considered  in  judging 
dairy  cattle,  and  should  be  so  regarded.  - 

7  A  committee  of  the  club  was  appointed  in  1915   to  draw  up  a  new  scale  of 
points,  which  had  not  appeared  up  to  the  going  to  press  of  these  pages. 


282  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

The  temperament  of  the  dairy  cow  lias  received  much 
attention  in  the  United  States  since  about  1890.  Ex-Gov- 
W.  D.  Hoard  of  Wisconsin,  noted  as  a  dairy  authority, 
probably  was  the  first  person  to  direct  attention  to  this 
subject.8  In  1886  he  first  discussed  this  subject  in  a  lecture 
on  ' '  Nervous  and  dairy  temperament  in  cattle. ' '  He  termed 
it  a  "predisposing  tendency  in  the  animal  to  convert  its 
food  either  into  milk  or  flesh/'  and  that  temperament 
pertaining  to  dairy  cattle  was  called  "dairy  temperament." 
He  classed  lean  cattle  of  the  dairy  type  as  nervous,  and 
cattle  of  the  beef  type  as  phlegmatic,  and  referring  to  the 
former  said:  "Here  you  see  the  open  expression  of  the 
barrel,  you  have  the  lean,  bony  outline  of  the  nervous  tem- 
perament. Dairy  breeders  breed  for  the  enlargement  of 
the  dairy  temperament."  This  is  defined  as  "a  strong, 
powerful,  nervous  machinery  and  not  excitation."  Van 
Pelt  states9  that  "the  term  nervous  temperament  means 
the  inherent  propensity  to  work,  to  eat  food,  digest  it  and 
convert  every  available  ounce  of  it  not  required  for  main- 
tenance into  milk  products,  and  does  not  imply  the  cow  is 
nervous  in  the  generally  accepted  meaning  of  the  term, 
nor  does  it  mean  that  she  is  excitable."  The  dairy  tem- 
perament, as  has  already  been  indicated,  is  especially  seen 
in  the  lean  conformation  of  body.  It  is  also  supposed  to  be 
expressed  in  the  broad,  full  forehead,  in  the  large,  prom- 
inent backbone,  and  in  the  mild  yet  active  eye.  The  brain 
is  the  center  of  nervous  force.  A  narrow,  small  forehead 
is  assumed  to  indicate  a  smaller  brain  than  does  a  large  one< 
The  nervous  force  radiates  throughout  the  body  by  means 
of  the  spinal  cord  passing  from  the  brain  through  the  back- 
bone or  spine.  Prominence  of  spine  would  imply  a  good  de- 
velopment of  spinal  cord  and  consequently  much  nervous 
force.  The  large,  prominent,  active  eye  gives  evidence  of  an 
active,  nervous  temperament.  These  are  the  various  reasons 
assigned  for  emphasizing  temperament.  From  a  scientific 

8  The  Dairy  Temperament  in  Cows,  Bull.  No.  5,  Wis.  Farm.  Inst.,  1891,  p.  83. 
8  Cow  Demonstration,  Hugh  G.  Van  Pelt,  1911,  p.  35. 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE  283 


Fig.  155. — "Prominence  of  spine  would  imply  a  good  development  of 
spinal  cord,  and  consequently  much  nervous  force." 

point  of  view  we  have  no  evidence  to  demonstrate  that 
either  temperament  or  disposition  among  cattle  is  affected 
by  much  other  than  environment,  and  it  may  seriously  be 
questioned  if  there  be  any  essential  difference  in  actual 
temperament,  as  based  on  type  or  conformation.  Dairy 
cattle  judges,  however,  generally  emphasize  the  so-called 
temperament  and  will,  no  doubt,  do  so  for  some  time  to 
come.  Disposition,  as  an  independent  feature,  is  intended 
to  apply  to  certain  mental  qualities,  such  as  quiet  and 
kindly,  or  irritable  and  cross,  or  whether  an  animal  is  a 
kicker  or  hooker,  etc.  Therefore,  in  judging  temperament, 
the  conformation  must  largely  be  the  guide,  while  disposi- 
tion will  be  manifested,  partly  in  the  eye,  and  partly  in 
the  movements  and  attitudes  of  body. 

The  head  and  neck  of  the  dairy  cow  show  a  much  more 
lean  make-up  than  occurs  with  the  beef  animal.  The  head 
should  be  lean  as  a  whole,  but  while  beef  cattlemen  gen- 


284  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

erally  prefer  a  short  type  of  head,  those  breeding  dairy 
cattle  prefer  one  of  medium  length — in  fact  some,  as  in 
case  of  the  Dutch,  favor  considerable  length.  The  muzzle 
should  be  broad,  and  the  mouth  and  nostrils  of  good  size, 
for  reasons  already  discussed  under  beef  cattle  type.  The 
eyes  should  be  large,  mild,  yet  alert,  and  give  evidence  of  a 
good  disposition  and  an  active  temperament.  The  eye 
among  some  dairy  cattle,  notably  some  Jerseys,  is  too  prom- 
inent and  termed  by  many  a  "pop  eye."  In  this  case 
the  eye  almost  projects  from  its  socket,  and  is  far  from 
attractive.  Prominence  up  to  a  certain  extent  is  highly 
desirable,  but  beyond  that  meets  with  distinct  disfavor. 
The  face  should  be  lean  and  of  medium  length.  One  sees 
long  faces  among  dairy  cows,  especially  the  Holstein-Frie- 
sian,  but  this  is  objectionable,  for  this  conformation  indi- 
cates a  poorer  feeder,  and  a  weaker  jaw,  than  does  a  more 
moderate  length.  The  bridge  of  the  nose  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  face  should  be  straight.  A  Roman  nose  is  not 
regarded  with  favor.  Light  veins  on  the  face  are  regarded 
as  desirable,  and  are  features  emphasized  in  both  Ayrshire 
and  Holstein  Friesian  scales  of  points.  They  have  no 
special  significance,  unless  indicating  quality.  The  lower 
jaw  should  be  strong  and  have  ample  width  at  its  base, 
thereby  indicating  the  good  feeder.  The  forehead  of  the 
dairy  cow  should  be  broad  and  slightly  depressed  or  dished 
between  the  eyes.  This  depression  is  considered  to  add  to 
the  graceful  contour  of  the  head.  It  is  much  more  marked 
with  some  breeds  than  others,  being  especially  noticeable  in 
the  Jersey.  The  ears  should  be  of  medium  size,  and  some- 
what thinner  than  with  beef  cattle.  They  are  character- 
ized by  a  general  coat  of  thin  hair  over  the  body  of  the 
ear,  with  long,  fine  hairs  along  the  edges  of  the  openings. 
Fine  veins  are  often  seen  on  the  ears  of  the  highly  bred 
dairy  cow,  while  the  skin  on  the  inside  of  the  ear  shows  more 
or  less  of  a  yellow,  oily  secretion.  The  shade  of  yellow  varies 
from  light  to  dark  or  orange,  and  offers  evidence  of  the 
degree  of  richness  in  yellow  color  of  the  butter  fat.  The 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


ears  should  be  placed  so  that  the  tips,  when  elevated,  wiJI 
not  project  above  the  top  of  the  head.  Horns  are  not  neces- 
sarily a  feature  of  the  head  of  the  dairy  cow,  excepting  as 
a  breed  character.  They  differ  greatly  among  the  breeds  of 
cattle  as  to  length  and  size.  The  modern  type  of  Ayrshire 
cow  carries  a  long,  and  very  strong  horn  at  its  base,  while 
the  Jersey  cow  usually  has  a  short  and  comparatively  small 
one.  In  itself  the 
horn  is  assumed  to 
indicate  quality  as 
shown  in  its  size 
and  texture,  and  in 
its  color,  as  sug- 
gest i  n  g  relation- 
ship to  color  of 
butter  fat.  Horns 
that  are  large  and 
coarse  at  the  head 
give  evidence  of 
general  coarseness, 
and  are  looked 
upon  with  disfavor 
by  most  judges. 
The  neck  of  the 

dairy  cow  should  be  lean  and  long  as  prime  essentials 
of  dairy  conformation.  Further,  it  should  be  neatly  at- 
tached to  both  head  and  shoulders.  The  comparatively  thin 
edge  of  the  top  of  the  neck  should  smoothly  merge  into 
the  withers.  The  base  of  the  neck  should  fit  neatly  at  the 
shoulders.  Frequently  the  neck  joins  the  shoulders  with 
a  sharp  corner  on  each  side,  giving  not  only  a  rough  but  a 
weak  attachment.  Extreme  depth  of  neck  and  dewlap  is 
undesirable,  as  indicating  coarseness.  Only  a  slight  amount 
of  dewlap  should  be  seen,  although  some  Brown  Swiss  cows 
carry  this  edge  of  skin  to  a  marked  degree. 

The  f  orequarters  of  the  dairy  cow  as  the  narrow  point  of 
a  wedge  form,  should  be  light  of  conformation.     Here  we 


Fig.  156. — "The  neck  of  the  dairy  cow 
should  be  lean  and  long." 


286  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

have  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  dairy  type,  quite 
the  opposite  o^Jiat  found  in  the  beef  animal.  The  withers 
should  be  sharp,  though  the  degree  will  depend  upon  the 
breed  influence  and  conditions.  Judges  very  generally  seek 
for  thin,  lean  withers,  though  undoubtedly  in  times  past 
too  great  emphasis  has  been  placed  on  their  sharpness. 
This  part,  however,  should  be  quite  free  of  flesh,  as  this  is 
antagonistic  to  dairy  development.  Shoulders  that  are  well 


Fig.  157. — "Only  a  slight  amount  of  dewlap  should  be  seen." 

laid  in,  sloping  smoothly  into  the  back,  and  quite  free  of 
surplus  flesh,  are  necessary  to  secure  the  wedge  form  and 
dairy  type.  Coarseness  of  the  shoulder  point  is  marked  if 
this  part  of  the  body  is  rough  and  heavy.  Sometimes  the 
points  of  the  shoulders  are  rather  wide  apart,  appearing 
almost  as  a  deformity.  This  seems  to  occur  with  old  cows, 
usually  those  that  are  superior  milkers,  and  is  caused  by  a 
relaxation  of  the  muscles  and  ligaments  connecting  the 
shoulders  and  front  ribs.  In  passing  on  a  condition  of  this 
kind,  the  judge  should  be  more  influenced  by  the  age  and 
general  physical  condition  of  the  animal,  than  by  the  un- 


JUDGING  T1IK  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


2S7 


usual  spread  between  shoulder  points  and  forelegs.  In 
itself  it  is  evidenee  of  weakness  and  the  Mdge  would  be 
justified  in  so  ruling,  but  it  need  not  be  regarded  as  serioiLs 
enough  to  cause  severe  discrimination.  The  /r^/.s-  should 
be  short  and  carried  comparatively  straight,  and  wide 
enough  apart  to  give  evidence  of  good  constitution.  Too 
many  dairy  cows  stand  with  their  legs  quite  close  together, 


Fig.  158. — "The  chest  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  deep,  yet  not  as  wide 
through,  comparatively,  as  the  beef  cow." 

evidencing  too  narrow  a  chest.  The  positions  of  legs  and 
feet  of  the  dairy  animal  should  be  carried  the  same  as  the 
beef  type,  as  described  on  page  245. 

The  body  of  the  dairy  cow  is  often  referred  to  by  stock- 
men as  the  barrel  or  middle  piece.  As  a  whole,  it  differs 
from  the  beef  animal,  in  lacking  flesh  and  possessing  more 
length  and  perhaps  wider  spacing  between  the  vertebrae  and 
ribs.  The  chest  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  deep,  yet  not  as 


288  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

wide  through,  comparatively,  as  the  beef  cow.  The  floor 
of  the  chest  should  be  well  rounded  out  and  somewhat 
strong  in  its  thickness,  yet  with  a  lean,  refined  brisket  ex- 
tending slightly  beyond  the  legs.  A  cross  section  of  the 
chest,  from  the  chine  or  backbone  just  back  of  the  withers 
and  shoulders,  will  show  an  outline  comparable  with  that 
of  an  egg  with  the  large  end  down.  If  the  shoulders  are 
neatly  placed  and  the  chest  is  not  too  flat  of  rib,  the  crops 
will  be  fairly  filled.  Ordinarily,  weak  crops  and  close 
spacing  between  shoulder  points  give  evidence  of  poor  chest 
capacity.  Depth  of  chest  is  of  great  importance  if  vigorous 
constitution  and  good  feeding  capacity  is  sought.  The 
back  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  lean,  and  strongly  carried, 
with  well-defined  spines  or  vertebrae,  furnishing  important 
evidence  relating  to  conformation.  Guernsey  breeders  are 
taught 10  to  look  for  a  ' '  backbone  rising  well  between  shoul- 
der blades ;  large,  rugged  spinal  processes,  indicating  good 
development  of  the  spinal  cord."  The  points  of  the  spine 
from  between  the  shoulders  almost  to  the  beginning  of  the 
loin,  are  long,  and  unless  too  much  covered  with  flesh,  are 
easily  felt.  This  prominence  of  backbone,  and  so-called 
openness  of  spine,  are  regarded  as  important  accompani- 
ments of  dairy  type,  as  well  as  nervous  temperament.  There 
is  no  evidence,  however,  to  show  that  the  spinal  cord  of  the 
dairy  cow  is  any  different  from  that  of  the  beef  cow.  The 
main  factor  is  that  lack  of  flesh  is  necessarily  related  to 
heavy  milk  production.  The  back  should  be  strong  and 
show  little  sag.  Old  dairy  cows  often  have  marked  depres- 
sion or  weakness  of  back.  Dairy  cattle  judges  are  not  as 
critical  as  beef  cattlemen  in  judging  the  way  the  back  is 
supported,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  impossible  to  get  a  per- 
fectly level  back  on  cattle,  unless  by  the  aid  of  flesh,  which, 
of  course,  is  undesirable  with  the  dairy  type.  Young  ani- 
mals, however,  that  have  not  been  milked  should  show  a 
comparatively  level  and  strongly  supported  back.  The  loin 

10  Scale  of  points  adopted  by  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  December  13, 
1899. 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE  289 

should  be  broad  and  not  depressed  in  front  of  the  hip.  A 
width  that  does  not  show  any  sharp  contraction  just  in 
front  of  the  hips  should  be  sought.  Lack  of  flesh  over  the 
loin  is  often  responsible  for  a  falling  away  here.  A  firm, 
strong  development  of  the  muscle  over  the  loin  is  not  an- 
tagonistic to  dairy  conformation.  The  judge  is  justified 
in  discriminating  against  a  weak,  depressed  loin.  The  rib s 
should  be  long  and  well  sprung  below,  thereby  giving  large 
capacity  for  feeding  and  reproduction.  It  will  be  noticed 
that,  largely  due  to  lack  of  flesh  covering,  the  ribs  of  the 
dairy  animal  do  not  show  so  much  level  extension  from 
the  spine,  before  curving  downward,  as  do  the  ribs  of  beef 
cattle.  However,  the  ribs  should  have  an  increasing  curve 
outward  and  downward,  expressing  the  wedge  conformation 
in  front,  yet  associated  with  much  depth  and  abdominal 
capacity  all  through.  Length  of  body  is  a  feature  of  the 
dairy  cow,  and  this  is  associated  with  some  openness  of 
space  between  the  ribs,  especially  those  nearest  the  hind- 
quarter.  The  last  two  or  three  ribs  are  often  separated  so 
that  one  may  easily  insert  the  fingers  between  with  a  free- 
dom not  possible  with  beef  cattle.  The  flanks,  both  in  front 
and  behind  should  be  full  and  deep.  There  has  been  some 
difference  of  opinion  among  judges  on  the  character  of  flank 
development,  especially  behind,  and  both  high  and  low 
flanks  have  been  advocated.  A  deep,  full  front  flank  is 
indicative  of  strong  heart  girth  and  outlines  the  curve  of 
the  lower  part  of  chest.  A  deep  hind  flank  will  be  associ- 
ated with  a  capacious  body  and  deep  rib,  and  if  thin  in 
flesh,  is  most  consistent  with  dairy  type.  On  the  contrary, 
the  high  flank  is  a  feature  of  the  shallow  body  and 
denotes  a  poor  feeder.  The  navel,  the  point  on  the  belly 
where  the  umbilicus  or  cord  of  the  calf  connected  with 
the  mother  before  birth,  at  one  time  was  regarded  as 
evidence  of  constitutional  vigor.  Ex.-Gov.  W.  D. 
Hoard  of  Wisconsin  first  advanced  the  argument  that 
a  large  navel  indicated  a  strong  attachment  of  the  calf 
to  the  dam  before  birth,  resulting  in  vigorous  offspring. 


290 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  159. — "A  deep  hind  flank  will  be  associated  with  a  capacious 
body  and  deep  rib." 

This  theory  was  for  some  time  advocated,  and  has  been  em- 
phasized on  some  score  cards.  The  Guernsey  scale  of 
points,  in  the  formation  of  which  Governor  Hoard  no  doubt 
had  much  influence,  states  that ' '  constitution  is  best  indicated 
by  a  full  development  at  the  navel,  and  strong  abdominal 
walls,  showing  that  the  animal  when  in  a  prenatal  state  was 
abundantly  nourished  by  the  mother  through  a  well-devel- 
oped umbilical  cord."  This  is  an  interesting  theory,  which 
apparently  is  made  little  use  of  to-day,  and  concerning  the 
actual  merits  of  which  no  exact  information  has  been  con- 
tributed to  the  public.  Wing  states  n  that  careful  observa- 
tion has  shown  that  the  size  of  the  umbilicus  is  more  of  a 
breed  than  an  individual  characteristic. 

The  hindquarters  of  the  dairy  cow  have  a  special  im- 
portance in  the  estimation  of  the  dairyman,  because  the 
conformation  of  this  part  is  a  vital  factor  in  milk  produc- 
tion. A  superior  mammary  development  is  not  likely  to 


31  The  Dairy  Herd. 
54,  1913,  p.  55. 


Henry  II.   Wing,   Cornell  Reading   Course,   Vol.   3,   No. 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE  291 

occur  unless  the  hindquarters  are  of  superior  shape  and 
proportions.  The  hips  of  the  cow  should  be  wide  apart  and 
at  least  as  high  as  the  spine.  Width  between  the  hips  indi- 
cates a  wide  pelvis,  which  is  highly  essential  as  relating  to 
parturition.  The  narrow  pelvis  suggests  serious  difficulty 
in  giving  birth  to  the  calf.  Comparatively,  the  hips  seem 
more  prominent  with  dairy  than  beef  cows,  due  no  doubt 
to  the  lack  of  flesh  covering.  Width  between  the  hips  is 
naturally  associated  with  the  wedge  type  of  the  dairy  cow. 
The  rump,  as  in  the  case  of  the  beef  cow,  should  be  long, 
wide  and  comparatively  level,  but  should  lack  the  heavy 
covering  of  flesh.  A  tendency  to  lay  on  flesh  over  the  rump 
is  looked  upon  with  distinct  disfavor  by  dairy  cattle  critics. 
One  feature  of  the  rump  has  been  much  discussed,  and  that 
is  what  is  known  as  the  pelvic  arch.  This  is  especially  no- 
ticeable in  the  large  size  and  prominence  of  the  backbone 
beginning  just  back  of  the  hips.  Viewed  from  either  the 
side  or  rear,  a  slight  elevation  of  this  part  is  noticeable. 
This  arching  is  assumed  to  indicate  a  spacious  opening 


Fig.  160. — "The  rump,  as  in  the  case  of  the  beef  cow,  should  be  long." 


292 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


through  the  pelvis  below,  important  when  giving  birth  to 
young,  while  the  prominence  of  backbone  presupposes  a 
"good  development  of  the  spinal  cord,"  according  to  the 
Guernsey  scale  of  points.  These  are  both  theories,  not  sup- 
ported by  any  actual  evidence,  and  too  much  emphasis 
should  not  be  placed  on  their  importance.  Some  years  ago 


Fig.  161. — "A  wide  rump,  however,  from  hips  to  pin  bones  is 
very  essential." 

the  late  Dr.  Leonard  Pearson,  long  Dean  of  University  of 
Pennsylvania  Veterinary  College,  in  conversation  with  the 
writer  relative  to  the  pelvic  arch,  stated  that  as  Pennsyl- 
vania State  Veterinarian  he  had  conducted  many  post 
mortem  examinations  on  dairy  cows.  He  was  much  inter- 
ested in  the  pelvic  arch  theory,  but  found  absolutely  no 
evidence  to  support  it,  cows  with  high  arches  oftentimes 
having  much  smaller  pelvic  space  below  than  did  cows  with 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


293 


insignificant  pelvic  arches.  A  wide  rump,  however,  from 
hips  to  pin  bones  is  very  essential.  A  wide  spacing  be- 
tween the  pin  bones  is  especially  important,  otherwise,  as 
cattlemen  know,  the  calf  may  be  delivered  with  great  diffi- 
culty. A  peaked  rump,  pin  bones  close  together,  with  sharp 
sloping  toward  both  the  rear  and  sides,  makes  an  extremely 
bad  conformation,  justifying  severe  action  on  the  part  of 
the  judge.  Such  a  rump  is  not  only  bad  from  a  physiologi- 


Fig.  162. — "The  tail  proper  turning  a  square  angle  just  above  the 
pin  bones." 

cal  point  of  view,  as  affecting  maternity,  but  is  also  associ- 
ated with  limited  udder  room  below.  The  tail  not  only 
gives  balance  and  proportion  to  the  cow,  but  serves  as  a 
valuable  aid  in  fighting  flies.  It  also  serves  as  an  indi- 
cator of  quality.  The  tail  head  should  be  neatly  attached 
on  a  level  with  the  end  of  the  spine,  the  tail  proper  turn- 
ing a  square  angle  just  above  the  pin  bones,  and  reaching 
to  the  point  of  hocks.  The  brush  should  contain  plenty  of 
long  hair  and  reach  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  feet.  Flies 
bite  and  irritate  the  thin-skinned  dairy  cow  far  more  than 
the  beef  animal,  hence  the  importance  of  a  long  tail  as  a 


294 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


means  of  protection.  The  bone  of  the  tail  should  also 
be  fine,  an  indication  of  quality.  The  thighs  of  the 
dairy  cow  should  be  long,  thin  and  widely  separated, 

quite  -  in  contrast 
with  the  thighs  of 
the  beef  ani- 
mal. As  one 
views  the  thighs 
from  one  side  they 
should  make  a  pro- 
nounced sweep  in 
toward  the  body 
and  then  turn  out 
to  end  the  curve  at 
the  point  of  hock. 
From  a  rear  view 
the  thighs  high  up 
are  separated  with 
but  little  curve, 
this  being  most 
marked  on  the 
lower  thigh  and 
reaching  the  hock. 
The  thighs  must 
not  only  be  thin, 
but  must  be  well 
separated,  if  space 

for  a  capacious  udder  is  to  be  had.  A  thick,  fleshy  thigh  is 
inconsistent  with  dairy  cow  conformation,  and  the  judge 
should  keep  this  point  in  mind.  The  hind  legs  should  be 
short,  straight,  and  carried  well  apart.  It  is  necessary  for 
the  legs  to  be  carried  well  apart,  to  allow  ample  room  for 
the  udder.  If  the  legs  touch  at  the  points  of  the  hocks, 
the  feet  and  toes  point  outward,  and  the  thighs  are  carried 
closer  together  than  they  should  be,  thus  crowding  the 
udder.  This  is  a  very  common  defect  of  dairy  cows.  In 
this  position  the  udder,  if  large,  is  naturally  pushed  for- 


Fig.  163. — "From  a  rear  view  the  thighs  high 
up  are  separated  with  but  little  curve." 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE      29.J 

ward.  This  close  carriage  of  the  hocks  and  legs  has  given 
rise  to  the  expression  '  *  cow-hocked, ' '  which  is  anything  but 
a  compliment.  One  rarely  sees  the  thighs  and  hocks  too 
widely  separated.  The  correct  position  of  the  hind  legs, 
from  either  side  or  rear  view,  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  beef 
animal,  excepting  that  space  in  one  type  is  needed  for  beef, 
and  in  the  other  for  the  udder.  When  the  cow  or  bull 
walks,  the  hind  legs  should  be  carried  forward  in  direct 
line,  without  crossing  or  swaying,  an  objection  referred  to 
in  the  first  Jersey  scale  of  points. 

The  mammary  development  of  the  cow,  when  milk  pro- 
duction is  the  principal  object  sought,  becomes  a  subject 
of  vital  importance  to  the  dairy  cattleman.  He  realizes 
that,  in  capacity  and  actual  value,  there  is  a  wide  range  of 
difference  between  the  ordinary  beef  cow  that  simply  nurses 
a  calf,  and  the  highly  bred  cow  of  dairy  type  that  may 
produce  twenty  thousand  or  more  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year. 
Each  animal  has  the  same  physical  structure.  Why  does 
one  produce  so  much  more  than  the  other  f  This  is  due  to 
various  factors,  among  others,  ancestry  along  milk-produc- 
ing lines,  the  nervous,  digestive  and  circulatory  systems, 
and  the  general  conformation,  or  relationship  of  one  part 
to  another.  Inasmuch  as  the  judge  must  be  a  student  of 
the  relationship  of  form  to  function,  a  brief  reference  to 
some  of  the  factors  bearing  on  milk  production  will  be 
appropriate  at  this  point. 

The  process  of  digestion  begins  with  the  mouth,  the 
food  passing  from  this  into  the  stomach  and  then  on  into 
the  intestines.  At  various  stages  of  the  movement  of  the 
food,  digestive  fluids  are  mixed  with  it,  so  that  it  gradually 
becomes  more  and  more  reduced  and  ready  for  use  in  the 
body. 

The  blood  as  a  factor  in  milk  production  is  very  im- 
portant, for  milk  is  produced  from  blood  during  its  move- 
ment through  the  udder.  Blood  nourishes  the  body  tissue, 
furnishes  material  for  the  secretions,  and  supplies  life-giv- 
ing oxygen.  Blood  is  81  per  cent  water  and  19  per  cent 


296  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

solids.  It  is  mainly  composed  of  a  sticky  fluid  called  plasma, 
in  which  are  distributed  immense  numbers  of  corpuscles, 
two-thirds  of  which  are  red,  the  remainder  being  white. 
The  red  color  in  blood  is  due  to  a  substance  known  as 
haemoglobin,  which  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air  in  the 


Fig.  164. — "The  circulatory  system  of  the  animal  consists  of  the  heart 
and  the  arteries,  capillaries  and  veins,  through  which  the  blood  moves."  The 
arteries  (white)  conduct  the  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  udder.  The  veins 
(black)  are  channels  by  which  the  blood  returns  to  the  heart  through  the 
udder.  This  cow  is  Imp.  Castlemain's  Nancy  2d,  a  noted  Ayrshire  owned 
by  Penshurst  Farm. 

lungs,  using  it  in  reducing  the  food  so  that  it  can  be  applied 
to  the  building  up  of  the  body  tissue. 

The  circulatory  system  of  the  animal  consists  of  the 
heart  and  the  arteries,  capillaries  and  veins  through  which 
the  blood  moves.  There  is  also  a  much  smaller  system,  the 
lymphatic,  which  contains  a  colorless  fluid,  the  lymph.  The 
heart,  a  hollow,  muscular  organ,  acts  both  as  a  suction  and 
force  pump,  keeping  the  blood  circulating  through  the  body. 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE  297 

The  arteries  conduct  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  tissues. 
They  arise  from  a  common  trunk,  the  aorta,  which  divides 
and  subdivides  like  the  branches  of  a  tree.  The  arteries 
are  very  elastic,  and  contract  and  expand.  The  capillaries 
are  extremely  fine  tubes  in  the  body  tissue,  terminating  in 
the  arteries,  which  absorb  part  of  the  nutrients  of  the  food 
into  the  blood.  The  veins  are  channels  by  which  the  blood 
returns  to  the  heart.  They  are  arranged  like  the  arteries, 
but  are  usually  of  larger 'capacity.  The  nutrients  of  the 
food  are  taken  up  in  the  process  of  digestion,  mainly  in  the 
intestines,  the  inner  coatings  of  which  .are  lined  with 
minute .  finger-like  projections  of  microscopic  size,  called 
villi.  In  the  center  of  each  of  these  villi  is  a  vessel,  the 
lacteal,  which  connects  with  the  lymphatic  system.  Sur- 
rounding the  lacteal  is  a  network  of  capillaries  which  con- 
nect with  the  blood  system.  Here,  in  the  villi,  nutrients  of 
the  food  are  separated.  The  proteids,  carbohydrates  and 
salts,  are  taken  up  by  the  capillaries,  while  the  fat  of  the 
food,  emulsified,  is  taken  up  by  the  lacteals.  The  contents 
of  the  capillaries  move  on  through  the  portal  vein  to  the 
liver,  and  thence  on  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  while 
the  contents  of  the  lacteals  find  their  way  into  a  long  lym- 
phatic tube  beneath  the  backbone,  which  leads  to  what  is 
known  as  the  thoracic  duct,  a  large  lymphatic  vessel,  which 
opens  into  a  big  vein  close  to  the  first  rib,  which  in  turn 
leads  into  the  heart.  From  here  the  blood  is  forced  to  the 
lungs  to  come  in  contact  with  air,  and  be  oxydized,  after 
which  it  passes  into  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  from  which 
place  it  is  distributed  by  means  of  the  arteries  to  the 
tissues  throughout  the  body.  The  large  artery,  the  aorta, 
leads  from  the  top  of  the  heart  along  beneath  the  spine, 
subdividing  just  below  the  hips.  From  here  the  arteries 
extend  on  and  down  into  the  udder,  one  passing  along  by 
the  thigh  bone  (femur)  and  another  to  the  extreme  rear, 
where,  with  considerable  division  and  running  together, 
they  continue  on  into  and  through  the  udder  tissue.  The 
veins  of  the  mammary  glands  converge  at  the  base  of  the 


298 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


udder.  After  leaving  the  udder  the  veins  pass  along  on 
the  surface  of  the  belly  until  they  disappear  through  open- 
ings known  as  "milk  wells"  in  the  belly  wall,  and  connect 
with  other  veins  leading  to  the  heart. 

The  physical  composition  of  the  udder  has  an  important 
relationship  to  form  and  production.  It  consists  of  two 
glands  which  lie  horizontally  side  by  side,  separated  by  a 
layer  of  tissue  which  assists  in  supporting  them.  These 

glands  are  distinctly  separate 
from  each  other.  This  may  be 
noted  by  examining  the  under 
side  of  the  udder,  where  the 
groove  separating  them  is  to  be 
seen.  Each  gland  ordinarily  has 
two  teats.  Through  the  medium 
of  a  teat  milk  is  drawn  from 
what  is  usually  termed  a  '  *  quar- 
ter "  of  the  udder.  As  the  glands 
are  independent  of  each  other, 
so  also  are  the  quarters.  This 
Dr.  Bitting  clearly  proved  at 
Purdue  University  Experiment 
Station,  when  he  injected  dif- 
ferent colored  liquid  tallow  in 
adjoining  quarters,  showing  that 
blue  never  passed  over  into  red, 
or  vice  versa.  A  cross  section  of 
the  two  quarters  always  showed 
a  clear  mark  of  separation  be- 
tween them.  This  independence 
of  the  quarters  is  often  demon- 
strated, in  a  practical  way,  by 

the  dairyman  who,  for  some  reasons,  draws  bloody  milk 
from  one  quarter,  while  from  the  adjoining  one  of  the 
same  side  apparently  perfect  milk  is  drawn.  Cows  also 
suffer  from  garget  in  one  quarter,  while  the  other  three 
milk  freely  and  appear  perfectly  healthy.  This  gland  con- 


Fig.  165. — "Dissecting  an  ud- 
der we  find  that  it  is  somewhat 
spongy  of  texture,  pinkish- 
white  in  color,  and  full  of  many 
holes  or  canals,  much  like  a 
sponge."  (Courtesy  Dr.  S.  Sis- 
son.  From  The  Anatomy  of  the 
Domestic  Animals,  1914,  p.  608. ) 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE     •_>!)».) 

sists  of  a  fleshy  framework,  filled  with  secreting  tissue. 
Dissecting  an  udder  we  find  that  it  is  somewhat  spongy  of 
texture,  pinkish-white  in  color,  and  full  of  many  holes  or 
canals,  much  like  a  sponge.  When  cut  more  or  less,  milk 
escapes  from  the  incision.  Above  each  teat  is  a  cavity 
known  as  the  milk  cistern  or  milk  reservoir,  from  which 
the  milk  is  drawn  through  the  teats.  At  the  lower  end  of 
each  teat,  a  small  muscle  (the  sphincter)  encircles  the  out- 
let with  enough  force,  ordinarily,  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
milk  unless  the  milking  operation  is  on. 

The  process  of  milk  secretion  may  be  briefly  described 
as  follows :  Each  gland  of  the  udder  is  composed  of  a 
quantity  of  structures  known  as  lobes,  lobules  and  alveoli. 
These  may  be  compared  to  a  bunch  of  grapes,  the  lobe  rep- 
resenting the  bunch,  the  lobule  one  grape  and  the  alveoli 
smaller  glands  or  ducts  within  the  one  fruit.  The  alveoli 
are  exceedingly  small  arid  can  be  seen  only  under  a  micro- 
scope of  high  magnifying  power.  Two  processes,  says 
Smith,12  from  whom  the  author  freely  quotes,  contribute 
to  the  formation  of  milk.  In  one,  the  cells  lining  the  al- 
veoli of  the  gland  are  shed  bodily,  and  from  the  fat  of  the 
milk,  while  in  the  other  water,  protein,  salts,  etc.,  are  formed 
from  the  lymph  in  the  gland  by  the  ordinary  process  of 
secretion.  The  gland  of  an  animal  that  has  never  been 
pregnant  contains  much  smaller  and  less  numerous  alveoli 
than  a  secreting  gland.  The  alveoli  of  the  non-pregnant 
animal  are  found  to  be  packed  with  small,  rounded  cells  of 
very  slow  growth.  When  the  animal  becomes  pregnant  the 
gland  enlarges,  the  alveoli  increase  in  number,  but  remain 
packed  with  the  cells  until  parturition  approaches  or  occurs. 
The  solid  masses  of  cells  are  now  cast  off,  and  leave  behind 
them  alveoli  lined  with  a  single  layer  of  secretory  epithe- 
lium, the  function  of  which  is  to  produce  the  milk.  The 
shedding  of  the  mass  of  cells  which  originally  occupied  the 
alveoli,  supplies  the  colostrum  or  first  milk.  The  cells  in 
the  active  gland  are  loaded  with  material,  much  of  it  being 

12  A  Manual  of  Veterinary  Physiology,  4th  «•<!..  London,  1912,  p.  726. 


300  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

fat,  and  these  cells  break  off,  leaving  behind  them  the  parent 
cell,  containing  a  nucleus  from  which  another  cell  grows. 
Thus  the  formation  of  fat  in  milk  is  really  a  process  of 
cell  secretion.  The  proteins,  sugar  and  salts  in  milk,  are 
secreted  in  the  ordinary  way  from  the  blood,  or  rather  the 
lymph,  circulating  in  the  gland,  the  cells  lining  the  alve- 
oli being  active  in  the  matter.  That  these  substances  are 
really  produced  by  the  cell  is  supported  by  the  fact  that 
neither  caseinogen  nor  milk  sugar  exist  in  any  other  tissue 
of  the  body.  The  secretion  of  the  alveoli  finds  its  way 
through  outlets  into  the  lobules,  and  from  these  into  the 
lobes,  and  thence  into  the  smaller  orifices  seen  in  the  udder 
when  cut  open,  from  which  it  is  conveyed  into  the  milk 
cistern.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  secretion  of  milk 
is  influenced  by  the  nervous  system,  but  there  is  no  ex- 
perimental evidence  which  places  this  beyond  doubt.  How- 
ever, the  action  of  the  blood  vessels  is  affected  by  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  nerves.  The  greater  the  capacity  of  the 
arteries  and  veins  of  the  udder,  the  larger  the  milk  secre- 
tion will  be.  According  to  R.  Meade  Smith:13  "as  far  as 
we  know,  the  mammary  secretion  is  dependent  upon  the 
amount  of  blood  passing  through  the  glands.  Changes  in  the 
general  blood  pressure,  by  modifying  the  blood  supply  of  the 
mammary  gland,  also  influence  the  amount  of  milk  secreted. ' ' 
The  form  of  the  udder  requires  consideration  in  de- 
tail. In  the  arrangements  of  some  scales  of  points, 
the  front  and  rear  parts  of  the  udder  are  separately  de- 
scribed and  assigned  separate  values.  The  udder  should 
be  large,  according  to  the  age  and  condition  of  the  cow. 
In  the  mature  animal,  in  full  flow  of  milk,  size  is  naturally, 
though  not  necessarily,  associated  with  heavy  milk  yield. 
If  the  mammary  development  as  a  whole  is  good,  then  large 
size  is  a  distinctly  desirable  feature.  The  udder  should 
be  long,  extending  high  up  behind  between  the  thighs,  and 
carried  well  forward  along  the  belly,  with  the  under  side 
or  "floor"  as  it  is  often  termed,  flat  or  level.  Present  day 

18  Physiology  of  Domestic  Animals,   1890,  p.  631. 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


301 


Fig.  166. — "The  udder  should  be  long,  extend- 
ing high  up  behind  between  the  thighs,  and  car- 
ried well  forward  along  the  belly." 


judges  prefer  this 
long  type  of  udder 
to  the  deeper  or 
more  pendant  one. 
The  long  udder  is 
strongly  supported 
by  its  muscular  at- 
tachment, while  the 
pendant  one  is 
weaker  of  form, 
and  shows  the  ten- 
dency to  breaking 
down  that  goes 
with  age.  The  hori- 
zontally long  udder  also  furnishes  a  more  convenient  form 
for  the  milker  to  approach  with  his  pail.  While  it  does 
not  follow  that  the  long  udder  may  produce  more  milk, 
or  even  as  much,  as  the  pendant  form,  evidence  secured 
by  the  author  years  ago  14  demonstrated  that  length  of  this 
gland  is  only  se- 
cured through  the 
development  of  the 
forequarter  of  the 
udder.  The  nat- 
ural tendency  is 
for  the  hindquar- 
ter  to  extend  well 
up  behind,  and  the 
higher  the  better. 
The  forequarter  is 
often  short,  show- 
ing little  extension. 
Frequently  the  ud- 
der is  What  might  Fi-  l<Vr.— "Tho  pendant  one  is  w.-nkor  of 
,  -iPi  form  and  shows  the  tendency  to  breaking  down 

be  termed  funnel-     that  goes  with  ag<' 


wThe  Udder  of  the  Cow,  Bulletin  C2,  October,  1896,  Purdue  Univ.  Agr.  Exp. 
Station. 


302 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


shaped,  the  forequarter  being  short  and  tilting  sharply  up- 
ward. Often  the  forequarter  appears  distinctly  elevated 
above  the  rear  quarter.  Experiments  have  shown  that  the 
hindquarters  usually  yield  considerably  more  milk  than  the 
forequarters,  and  that  the  longer  and  more  fully  the  latter 
are  developed  the  more  closely  they  approach  the  former  in 
milk  yield.  In  other  words,  the  yielding  capacity  of  the 
udder  is  increased  by  extending  the  forequarter.  This  has 
been,  in  a  way,  recognized  by  some  scales  of  points.  The 


Fig.  168. — "The  forequarter  is  often  short." 

American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  in  its  official  scale  of  points, 
for  example,  credits  ten  points  to  the  fore  udder  and  six 
to  the  rear  udder,  thereby  putting  a  prejnium  on  improv- 
ing the  part  that  most  needs  development.  The  judge  ob- 
tains his  idea  of  the  length  and  form  of  udder  by  viewing 
it  from  the  side,  but  he  should  carefully  compare  the  sides 
and  see  that  they  are  well  balanced.  It  is  not  unusual  to 
find  an  udder  that  is  attractive  on  one  side,  and  apparently 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


303 


Fig.  169. — An  udder  with 
throe  teats  —  a  very  unusual 
condition. 


tinctly  thicker  than 
those  behind.  This  is 
also  suggested  by  the 
distance  between  the  op- 
posite hind  teats  and  the 
opposite  front  ones.  The 
more  closely  the  thighs 
are  placed,  the  thinner 
will  be  the  hindquarters. 
Not  infrequently  one 
sees  an  udder,  low  in  its 
rear  attachment,  be- 
tween thighs  so  close  to- 
gether that  the  udder 
as  a  whole  is  crowded 
forward  with  a  consid- 
erable tilt  of  the  lower 
side.  The  form  of  the 


perfect,  while  the  other  side 
shows  a  quarter  not  in  equally 
good  form  with  its  opposite, 
making  a  shorter  and  more  un- 
shapely gland.  Uniformity  in 
size  and  shape  of  quarters 
should  be  emphasized  by  the 
judge.  The  udder  as  a  whole 
should  be  fairly  thick,  assum- 
ing that,  other  things  being 
equal,  the  thick  udder  has 
more  capacity  than  the  'thin 
one.  The  natural  form  of  the 
udder  is  to  be  narrower  behind 
than  in  front — another  wedge 
— the  forequarters  being  dis- 


Fig.  170. — "The  udder  as  a  whole 
should  be  fairly  thick." 


304 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


udder  has  involved  more  or  less  discussion,  in  which  the 
show  udder  has  been  compared  disadvantageous!;^  with  the 
so-called  commercial  one.  Many  cows  having '  large  ad- 
vanced registry  records  have  possessed  udders  that 
were  not  of  show  ring  form,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  some, 
demonstrates  that  show  ring  standards  are  impracticable. 
The  fact  remains,  however,  that  we  must  have  standards 
in  conformation,  and  that  as  a  rule,  the  cow  of  milk  produc- 
ing lines,  with  an  ideal  udder  in  form,  will  make  the  more 
creditable  showing  at  the  pail. 

The  quality  of  the  udder  is  manifested  in  several  ways. 
It  should  be  smooth  and  mellow  to  the  touch.  Udders 
differ  in  their  internal  character  and  texture.  The  proper 
time  to  examine  the  quality  is  after  the  milk  has  been 
drawn.  Then,  when  taken  between  the  hands  one  feels 
something  of  the  inner  texture.  The  udder  differs  in 
mellowness  very  materially.  If  made  up  largely  of  fleshy 
framework,  it  is  known  as  a  fleshy  or  meaty  udder,  and 


Fig.   171. — "When  taken  between   the  hands  one  feels  something  of  the 
inner  texture." 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


305 


lacks  more  than  it  should  in  secreting  tissue.  Such  an 
udder  does  not  secrete  as  freely  as  it  should,  and  when 
milked  out  its  form  may  be  but  slightly  changed.  When 
secreting  tissue  is  very  abundant,  the  udder  is  more  mellow 
and  elastic,  and 
when  the  milk  is 
drawn,  the  gland 
shrinks  greatly, 
sometimes  appear- 
ing as  a  thin,  skin- 
enclosed  sac. 
Fleshy  udders  yield 
a  much  smaller  flow 
than  elastic  ones, 
but  usually  test 
higher  in  butter 
fat.  They  are  not, 
as  a  rule,  regarded 
with  favor.  The 
udder  that,  after 
milking,  ' '  shrinks 
away  to  nothing" 
shows  the  best 
quality  and  largest 
production.  R  e  - 
moval  of  the  milk 
also  leaves  the 
gland  in  condition 


Fig.  172. — "The  skin  enclosing  the  udder  should 
be  very  elastic." 

to  inspect  it  for  "knots"  or  small 
tumors.  It  is  not  remarkable  to  feel  lumps  of  this  sort  lo- 
cated among  the  gland  tissue,  that  will  not  be  detected  un- 
less the  empty  udder  is  handled.  The  skin  enclosing  the 
udder  should  be  very  elastic,  and  covered  with, short,  fine, 
silky  hair.  The  elasticity  of  the  skin  and  udder  are  dis- 
tinct evidences  of  quality.  The  more  elastic  the  skin,  the 
greater  the  expanding  capacity  of  the  milk-filled  udder. 
A  judge  is  always  justified  in  requiring  the  milking  out  of 
an  udder  that  is  full,  that  he  may  give  it  thorough  exarnin- 


son 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


ation.  The  character  of  the  competition,  however,  will  af- 
fect the  requirements  of  the  judge  in  this  regard.  It  is 
customary  to  milk  out  in  the  older  cow  classes,  when  com- 
petition is  close. 

The  teats  are  simply  the  medium  for  drawing  off  the 
milk.  They  should  be  perfect,  having  good  openings, 
through  which  no  leakage  will  occur.  They  should  be  of 
convenient  size  to  grasp  in  the  hands  three  to  four  inches 


Fig.  173.— "They  should  be  of  convenient  size  to  grasp  in  the  hands.' 


long,  should  hang  perpendicularly,  and  be  located  far 
enough  apart  to  grasp,  without  the  hands  interfering  with 
each  other.  The  front  teats  are  naturally  somewhat  larger 
than  the  back  ones.  The  Ayrshire  scale  of  points  specifies 
as  follows,  and  more  in  detail  regarding  the  teats  than  does 
that  for  any  other  breed : 15  "  Evenly  placed,  distance  apart 
from  side  to  side  equal  to  half  the  breadth  of  udder,  from 
back  to  front  equal  to  one-third  the  length ;  length  2i/>  to 

15  Uniform  scale  of  points  adopted  by  the  United  States  and  Canadian  Ayrshire 
Breeders'  Associations,   1906. 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE  307 

3%  inches,  thickness  in  keeping  with  length,  hanging  per- 
pendicular and  not  tapering."  The  teats  of  the  cow  vary 
greatly  in  form  and  position.  They  range  from  short, 
small  ones,  very  hard  to  grasp,  rather  often  seen  on  Ayr- 
shire and  Jersey,  to  long,  big  ones,  especially  seen  on 
Holstein  and  Red  Polled  cattle,  that  more  than  fill  the 
largest  hand.  Such  teats  are  undesirable  enough  for  hand 
milking,  but  the  growing  use  of  the  milking  machine  adds 
to  the  necessity  of  having  cylindrical  teats  of  medium  size, 
well  suited  either  to  hands  or  the  cups  of  the  machine. 
Another  undesirable  feature  of  the  teat  is  enlargement  of 
its  upper  part,  caused  by  a  weakening  of  the  wall  of  the 
udder  above.  Judges  should  give  more  attention  to  the 
character  and  usefulness  of  the  teats,  discriminating  espe- 
cially against  those  that  are  short  or  defective.  The  pres- 
ence of  extra  teats  that  are  small  and  unproductive  some- 
times occurs.  These  have  been  assumed  to  indicate  su- 
perior mammary  development,  but  we  have  no  evidence  to 
that  effect.  Some  breeders  remove  these  extra  teats,  cut- 
ting them  off  during  calf  age  before  they  assume  too  great 
a  size.  Cows  with  sore  teats  that  cannot  be  handled  by  the 
judge,  should  not  be  shown.  On  several  occasions  the  author 
has  seen  cows  in  the  show  ring,  the  teats  and  udders  of 
which  were  affected  with  cow  pox.  Such  cases  should  be 
barred  from  the  show  grounds. 

The  milk  veins,  as  has  previously  been  stated,  convey 
the  blood  from  the  udder  along  the  belly  toward  the  heart. 
Not  much  is  actually  known  regarding  the  relationship  of 
these  veins  to  milk  production.  Some  years  ago  Dr.  King, 
of  Maine,  stated  that  the  size  of  the  vein  was  not  a  true  indica- 
tion of  its  blood-carrying  capacity,  some  veins  having  thicker 
walls  than  others,  and  the  blood  flow  being  more  rapid  in 
some  cows  than  others.  More  recently,  Prof.  R.  R.  Graves, 
of  the  Oregon  Experiment  Station,  has  been  conducting 
experiments  on  the  relation  of  the  vein  to  milk  flow.  In 
a  letter  to  the  author,  of  June  2,  1916,  he  states  that  he 
tied  the  veins  of  a  Holstein  cow  producing  about  45  pounds 


308 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


Fig.  174. — "The  milk  veins  convey  the  blood  from  the  udder  along  the 
belly  toward  the  heart."  (From  photo  Castlemain's  Nancy  4th,  an 
Ayrshire  owned  by  Penshurst  Farms.) 

of  milk  a  day.  "Excepting  for  a  slight  shock  at  the  first, 
this  cow  has  apparently  suffered  no  ill  effects,  and  ,is  in 
good  condition,  and  is  producing  well  at  the  present  time, ' ' 
after  having  the  veins  tied  for  three  months.  It  has  been 
generally  assumed  by  dairy  cattle  critics,  that  the  larger, 
the  longer  and  more  tortuous  (twisted  or  crooked)  the  veins, 
the  greater  the  producing  capacity  of  the  cow.  In  other 
words,  the  heaviest  milkers  may  be  expected  to  have  the 
greatest  vein  development.  Van  Pelt,  well  known  as  a 
dairy  cattle  judge,  writes:16  "I  have  never  seen  an  ex- 
tremely good  cow  whose  system  of  mammary  veins  and 
wells  was  not  extremely  well  developed,  and  I  have  never 
seen  a  really  poor  cow  with  a  great  mammary  system.  It 
has  been  my  pleasure  to  examine  such  cows  as  Colantha 
4th 's  Johanna,  Jacoba  Irene,  Dairymaid  of  Pinehurst  and 
Financial  Countess,  and  without  exception  their  veining  is 

16  Cow  Demonstration.     Hugh  G.  Van  Pelt,  1911,  p.  51. 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


309 


tremendous. ' '  The  udder  secreting  a  great  amount  of  milk 
has  been  assumed  to  have  a  strong  passage  of  blood  through 
it,  and  the  large  veins  have  been  supposed  to  be  associated 
with  such  a  flow.  This,  perhaps,  is  not  entirely  true,  and 
the  information  secured  by  Professor  Graves  justifies  us  in 
suspending  judgment  on  this  little-understood  subject.  The 
veins  of  young  animals,  however,  are  smaller  than  those  of 
old  ones,  and  are  less  conspicuous.  Two  veins  are  com- 
monly seen  along  the  belly,  one  on  each  side  and  one  longer 
than  the  other.  Often  a  third  and  shorter  vein  occurs  be- 
tween these.  In  uncommon  cases  other  veins  branch  off, 
or  a  large  number  of  small  ones  cover  the  intervening 
space  on  the  belly  between  the  udder  and  navel,  sometimes 
causing  a  varicose  effect.  It  is  not  unusual  also  to  see 
small  veins  on  the  outside  of  the  udder,  a  condition  seem- 
ingly associated  with  heavy  milking.  The  length  and  size 
of  the  veins  vary  considerably.  Ordinarily  the  longest  vein 
extends  about  half  way  the  length  of  the  belly,  but  in  rare 
cases  may  occupy  the  entire  distance  and  disappear  at  the 


Fig.  175. — "The  length  and  size  of  the  veins  vary  considerably." 


310 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


front  flank  or  under  the  shoulder  blade.  The  diameter  of 
the  main  milk  veins  approximates  a  half  inch,  occasionally 
reaching  one  inch  and  showing  prominently  along 
the  belly.  To  examine  the  milk  veins  well,  it  is  necessary 
for  the  judge  to  lower  his  head  to  a  point  where  he  can 
easily  see  the  entire  belly.  In  the. opinion  of  most  judges, 
the  producing  capacity  of  the  cow  will  usually  be  consid- 


Fig.  176. — "Sometimes  these  wells  are  big  enough  to  receive  the  end  of  a 
good-sized  finger." 

erably  influenced  by  the  vein  development,  even  though  the 
judge  may  lack  the  facts  to  support  his  theory. 

The  milk  wells  are  the  orifices  or  holes  in  the  belly  wall 
through  which  the  larger  veins  disappear.  Sometimes  these 
wells  are  big  enough  to  receive  the  end  of  a  good-sized 
finger.  Large  wells  usually  accompany  large  veins.  We 
know  nothing  of  the  true  significance  of  the  relationship  of 
size  of  well  to  production,  though  large  wells  are  assumed 
to  be  evidence  of  heavy  milking  capacity,  being  associated 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  TYPE  OF  CATTLE 


311 


with  strong  blood  circulation.  It  is  usually  easy  to  locate 
the  wells  at  the  ends  of  the  two  more  important  veins,  but 
the  minor  ones  are  not  so  easily  found.  Most  of  the  present 
day  scales  of  points  applied  to  dairy  cows  include  reference 

to  the  size  of  the 
milk  well. 

The  escutcheon 
theory,  according 
to  the  official 
French  report,17 
'  '  is  founded  on  the 
arrangement  or 
disposition  of  the 
hair,  in  a  space 
commencing  at  the 
upper  extremity  of 
the  vulva,  and  de- 
scendingto  the 
roots  of  the  teats, 
winding  as  it  de- 
scends, covering  the 
inner  and  hind 
parts  of  the  thigh. 
It  is  from  the  ar- 
rangement of  the 
hair  in  this  space 
that  the  deductions 
are  made  as  to  the  quantity,  duration  and  quality 
of  the  milk."  This  theory  was  originated  by  a 
Frenchman  named  Guenon  who,  in  1828,  requested 
the  Academy  of  Bordeaux  to  investigate  his  theory, 
which  was  done,  but  not  until  1837.  Guenon  divided  all 
cows  into  ten  classes  or  families,  and  each  of  these  into  three 
sizes,  large,  medium,  small.  The  cows  in  each  class,  depend- 
ing on  size,  were  grouped  into  six  orders,  according  to  the 


Fig.  177. — "The  surface  of  the  escutcheon  Is 
distinguished  by  its  upward  growing  hair." 


17  A    Treatise   on   Milch   Cows,    by   M.    Francis   Guenon,   translated   by   N.    P. 
Trivt,   New  York,  1856,  p.  5. 


312  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

escutcheon.  The  author  of  this  theory  thus  describes  it : 18 
."The  surface  of  the  escutcheon  is  distinguished  by  its  up- 
ward growing  hair,  which  takes  a  direction  opposite  to 
that  which  covers  the  other  parts  of  the  skin.  The  hair  of 
the  escutcheon  is  also  distinguished  by  its  tint,  which  is 
duller  than  that  of  the  other  hair.  The  escutcheon  starts 
from  the  middle  of  the  four  teats,  a  part  of  its  hair  extend- 
ing forward  under  the  belly,  in  the  direction  of  the  navel, 
while  the  other  part,  beginning  a  little  above  the  hocks, 
spreads  as  far  as  the  middle  of  the  hinder  surface  of  the 
thighs,  ascending  on  the  udder  and  in  some  classes  running 
up  as  high  as  the  top  of  the  vulva.  The  form  or  pattern 
of  the  escutcheon  indicates  the  class  to  which  the  animal 
belongs,  while  the  extent  of  surface  covered  by  it  denotes 
the  milk-giving  capacity.  This  extent,  varying  in  decreas- 
ing proportion,  gives  rise  to  several  orders,  in  which  I 
range  the  members  of  each  class.  The  fineness  of  the  hair 
of  the  escutcheon,  and  the  color  of  the  skin,  indicate  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk.  ...  In  all  the  classes  and 
orders,  the  escutcheon  is  the  sole  indicator  of  the  internal 
capacity  of  the  udder,  so  that  if  the  escutcheon  is  large, 
we  can  pronounce  without  hesitation  that  the  internal  reser- 
voir is  large,  and  the  yield  of  milk  will  be  abundant,  while, 
if  the  escutcheon  be  small,  the  reservoir  is  small,  and  the 
yield  of  milk  will  be  small."  Guenon  also  describes  a 
special  growth  of  the  hair  which  he  termed  "feathers," 
of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  ascending  and  descending. 
These  he  classifies  into  seven  groups,  five  of  which  occur 
on  the  escutcheon  and  two  outside  of  it.  This  system  in- 
cludes an  escutcheon  classification  for  bulls.  This  theory, 
which  was  so  widely  discussed  and  advocated  many  years 
ago,  is  practically  discarded  to-day,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  Ayrshire,  Guernsey  and  Holstein-Friesian 
scales  of  points  each  recognize  the  escutcheon.  It  will 
be  difficult  to  assign  value  to  this  theory  so  long  as  high- 
class  producing  cows  show  escutcheons  of  low  order. 

18  Guenon  on  Milch  Cows,  translated  by  T.  J.  Hand,  New  York,  1883,  p.  28. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


THE  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE. 

FOLLOWING  the  use  of  the  score  card,  as  applied  to  the 
individual,  comes  a  study  of  two  or  more  animals  in  com- 
parison. As  has  already  been  indicated,  in  reference  to 
horses  and  beef  cattle,  the  score  card  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose  in  a  very  limited  way.  The  scoring  method  is  then 


Fig.  178. — "An  interesting  and  instructive  study  may  result.' 
313 


314  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

succeeded  by  the  less  tedious  and  more  common  plan  of 
comparing  the  animals  in  a  group.  In  the  case  of  dairy 
cattle,  emphasis  is  naturally  placed  on  the  features  for 
which  this  class  of  stock  is  bred  and  valued.  Animals  of 
the  same  general  age  and  period  of  lactation  are  compared. 
A  similar  method  of  inspection  is  applied  as  with 
beef  cattle.  An  interesting  and  instructive  study  may  re- 
sult by  comparing  certain  features  or  characteristics  as 
found  in  each  animal  of  the  group,  in  which  the  strong  and 
weak  points  of  each  will  be  graded  into  either  first,  second, 
third  or  fourth  place.  The  following  comparison  card  is 
suggested,  each  animal  to  be  identified  by  a  letter  of  the 
alphabet. 


DAIRY  CATTLE  COMPARISON  CARD 


Name  of  Judge Date  Judged 

Class  of  Cattle . . 


First        Second       Third    Fourth 
Place        Place        Place       Place 


FEATUEES  TO  JUDGE 

Form  or  type 

Quality         .  .      .... 

Temperament      

Head  and  neck 

Forequarters       

Constitution         .  .      .  . 

Body 

Bump 

Thighs          

Udder  

Teats 

Veins 

Breed  character 


Placing 


COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE         ;;ir, 

The  placing  of  a  group  of  animals  will  largely  depend 
on  the  number  of  times  A  was  credited  with  first  place, 
B  with  second,  etc.  However,  the  judge  must  attach  the 
same  relative  importance  to  the  features  in  this  comparison 
card  that  they  receive  on  the  regular  score  card,  excepting 
that  of  breed  character,  for  which  special  provision  must 
be  made.  If  cow  A  were  given  first  place  under  form,  head 
and  neck,  body,  rump,  thighs  and  udder,  she  would  cer- 
tainly have  an  advantage  over  any  one  of  the  others,  for 


Fig.  179. — "His  work  as  judge  should  show  consistency  in  his  placings." 

these  are  first  essentials  in  a  dairy  cow,  involving  two- 
thirds  of  the  scale  of  points.  Thus  the  placing  of  each, 
cow  will  depend  materially  upon  what  she  might  score. 
The  final  rank  of  each  animal  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
card,  after  the  credits  assigned  are  decided  upon.  Under 
usual  conditions  of  the  show  ring,  the  animals  are  exam- 
ined and  placed  in  their  order  of  merit.  When  the  judge 
makes  his  placings,  he  must  have  clearly  in  mind  the  merits 
and  demerits  of  each  animal.  His  work  as  judge  should 
show  consistency  in  his  placings,  in  his  adherence  to  type 


316  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

and  to  the  apparent  efficiency  of  the  animal  as  a  producer. 
Without  desired  type,  however,  and  some  other  important 
features,  strong  mammary  development  will  often  place 
an  animal  high  up  in  the  competition,  and  with  the  en- 
dorsement of  the  critics.  That  is  a,  recognition  of  the  busi- 
ness end  of  the  cow  that  requires  most  careful  judgment, 
otherwise  animals  with  serious  weaknesses  that  should 
never  receive  a  high  placing,  may  stand  above  others  pos- 
sessing qualities  and  characteristics  of  greater  importance. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

JUDGING  DAIRY  TYPE  BULLS  AND 
YOUNG  CATTLE. 

(A)— DAIRY  TYPE  BULLS. 

Sex  character  in  the  dairy  bull,  as  in  the  beef  type,  is 
especially  noticeable  in  head,  neck  and  shoulders,  and  in 
the  temperament.  The  lack  of  flesh,  however,  gives  a  leaner, 
sharper  definition  of  the  head,  and  less  thick,  though  perhaps 
a  longer  neck ;  and  a  more  or  less  bare  and  prominent  shoul- 
der. The  neck  of  the  mature  bull  should  show  considerable 
crest  and  muscular  development,  the  dairy  bull  often  carry- 
ing his  masculine  character  to  an  extreme.  The  shoulders 
should  not  show  the  refinement  of  the  cow,  but  should  be 
heavier,  with  wider  withers  and  more  smoothness  over  the 
top.  Roughness  of  shoulder  is  often  seen  in  dairy  bulls, 
which  is  emphasized  by  the  lack  of  flesh.  The  temperament 
is  also  an  evidence  of  sex  character,  as  seen  in  the  activity 
of  disposition,  with  a  tendency  to  nervousness  and  self- 
assertion  far  more  marked  than  with  beef  bulls.  The  dis- 
position is  often  ugly  after  reaching  maturity,  so  that  great 
care  needs  to  be  taken  in  handling  males.  The  rudimentary 
teats  are  special  sex  characters  of  the  bull.  These  are  lo- 
cated, two  on  a  side,  just  in  front  of  the  scrotum.  These 
teats  vary  much  in  length  and  position,  and  when  well  de- 
veloped a  slight  amount  of  milky  fluid  may  be  squeezed 
from  them.  They  may  be  an  inch  in  length,  or  scarcely 
more  than  fleshy  scars.  Years  ago  long  rudimentaries  were 
regarded  as  indicating  that  a  bull  would  sire  daughters  that 
should  have  good-sized  teats,  associated  with  strong  milk- 
giving  properties.  That  theory  seems  to  have  been  gen- 
erally exploded,  and,  for  want  of  a  better  one,  it  has  been 

317 


318 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  180. — "The  sex  character  of  the  dairy  bull  is  especially  noticeable  in 
head,  neck  and  shoulders."     Jersey  bull,  Julia's  Majesty. 

assumed  that  the  location  of  the  rudimentaries  will  indi- 
cate the  transmission  of  the  placing  of  teats  on  the  daugh- 
ters. Bulls  vary  greatly  in  the  placing  of  these  rudiment- 
ary teats,  some  being  attached  on  the  same  level  and  widely 
separated,  while  with  others  they  are  close  together,  with 
the  fore  teat  high  above  the  rear  one.  No  information 
other  than  popular  opinion  justifies  drawing  any  conclu- 
sions on  the  significance  of  the  rudimentaries.  However, 
the  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  gives  the  following 
special  distinction l  to  these  features  of  male  anatomy : 
"We  consider  that  a  well-balanced  and  well-shaped  udder 
in  the  cow  is  largely  due  to  the  way  the  rudimentary  teats 
are  placed  on  the  sire.  If  they  are  crowded  close  together, 
the  result  is  likely  to  be  narrow-pointed  udders.  If  they 
are  placed  well  apart,  of  good  size,  and  well  forward  of 
the  scrotum,  the  effect,  we  think,  will  be  to  influence 

1  Scale  of  points  adopted  in  1899. 


DAIHY  TYPK   IH'U.S   AND   VOINO  CATT1.K  ;;i<j 

largely  flu-  production  of  well-shaped  udders  in  Ihe  result- 
ing heifers,  and  counteract  the  tendency  to  ill-shaped  udders 
inherited  from  dams  deficient  in  this  respect."  The  veins 
of  the  bull  are  also  evidences  of  sex  character.  These  are 
small,  are  usually  two  in  number,  and  extend  along  on  1he 
belly,  covering  much  the  same  relative  location  as  on  the 
cow,  and  disappear  through  openings  in  the  belly  wall. 
Judges  usually  examine  the  veins  and  wells  on.  the  bull, 
and  regard  them  as  giving  evidence  of  dairy  character. 
Such  veins  are  also  to  be  seen  on  bulls  of  the  beef  type. 
Constitutional  vigor  in  the  dairy  bull  should  have  special 
emphasis.  This  will  be  indicated  by  the  depth  of  chest, 
rather  than  thickness,  with  the  foreribs  well  arched  below. 
The  squareness  and  fullness  of  front  of  the  beef  bull  should 
not  occur  with  the  dairy  type.  However,  a  close  placing 
of  the  front  legs,  with  the  knees  nearly  together,  indicates 
undesirable  narrowness  of  the  floor  of  the  chest.  If  the 
front  flank  is  deep  and  full,  the  legs  will  stand  wide  enough 
apart.  An  active,  alert  carriage  of  head  and  neck,  promi- 
nent eye,  a  strong  muzzle,  a  widely  developed  forehead,  a 
capacious  middle,  and  mellow,  elastic  skin,  are  other  im- 
portant evidences  of  constitutional  vigor  the  judges  should 
emphasize. 

Size  with  the  dairy  bull  varies  considerably  with  the 
breed.  Medium  size  meets  with  most  favor.  Size  or  weight 
should  not  be  secured  by  a  fleshy  condition,  which  is  dis- 
tinctly objectionable.  In  judging,  large  size,  when  free 
from  coarseness,  should  meet  with  favor  as  compared  with 
small  size,  even  though  characterized  by  good  form  and 
quality. 

The  general  form  of  the  dairy  bull  is  shown  in  length, 
depth  and  angularity,  rather  than  in  a  short,  thick,  smooth 
form.  As  one  views  him  from  one  side,  he  appears  com- 
paratively long  of  outline,  especially  in  neck  and  body,  with 
appreciable  depth  of  rib.  From  in  front  the  withers  and 
chine  or  top  of  front  ribs  appear  narrow.  From  the  rear 
the  hips  should  not  appear  too  wide  apart,  though  with  a 


320 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


fair  degree  of  prominence,  while  the  hindquarter  should 
be  lean  and  muscular,  with  very  little  twist,  and  the  thighs 
divided  nearly  if  not  quite  to  the  vulva.  A  fleshy  rump 
and  thigh  is  distinctively  objectionable.  Angularity  of 
form,  or  freedom  from  a  tendency  to  lay  on  flesh  is  most 
important.  Classes  of  mature  dairy  bulls  vary  more  in 
type  than  occurs  with  any  other  farm  animals,  so  that  with 
some  breeds,  notably  the  Guernsey  and  Holstein-Friesian, 


V    * 


Fig.  181. — "The  general  form  of  the  dairy  bull  is  shown  in  length,  depth 
and  angularity."  (From  photo  Holstein  Friesian  bull,  Sir  Beets  Cornu- 
copia Netherland  38460,  owned  by  W.  S.  Moscript.) 

judges  find  individuals  varying  vridely  from  accepted  stan- 
dards. Such  mixtures  furnish  difficult  work  for  the  judge, 
and  unless  he  has  a  well-defined  standard  of  type  in  mind, 
he  will  be  likely  to  render  unsatisfactory  decisions,  both  to 
himself  and  to  all  others.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
world  over,  among  intelligent  breeders,  there  is  a  recognized 
relationship  of  form  to  function,  then  both  breeders  and 
judges,  of  necessity,  must  place  a  premium  on  this  relation- 
ship,-if  breed  improvement  is  to  continue. 


DAIRY  TYPE  BULLS  AND  YOUNG  CATTLK 


321 


(B)— JUDGING  YOUNG  DAIRY   CATTLE. 

Undeveloped  animals  of  the  dairy  type  differ  iu  appear- 
ance, previous  to  lactation,  according  to  the  way  they  have 
been  fed.  Often  they  carry  their  calf  fat  and  appear 
smooth-fleshed  and  much  thicker  over  the  shoulders  and 
about  the  hindquarters  than  they  will  with  maturity.  For 
that  reason  too  much  emphasis  should  not  be  placed  on  the 
fineness  of  withers,  or  the  carrying  of  more  flesh  than 
might  be  thought  desirable.  Certain  things,  however, 


i 


flf 


Fig.  182. — "Heifers  should  show  udders  with  much  pliability  of  skin." 

should  be  as  important  in  the  young  as  in  the  mature  animal, 
especially  the  general  form — indicating  as  it  does  consti- 
tution, digestive  capacity,  and  quality — the  head,  and  the 
hindquarters.  Long,  level,  wide  rumps  and  comparatively 
thin  thighs  should  be  insisted  on.  Constitution,  as  shown 
in  heart  girth  and  f orerib  development ;  digestive  capacity, 
as  evidenced  by  a  deep  middle  piece;  and  quality  as  em- 
phasized in  sappy,  mellow  hide,  and  fine  hair,  are  essentials. 
No  calf  lacking  in  any  one  of  these  three  features  should 


322  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

be  placed  high  in  competition.  Heifers  should  show  udders 
with  much  pliability  of  skin,  having  teats  of  good  size, 
placed  well  apart  and  on  the  same  level.  Udders  that  hang 
tight  to  the  belly,  with  teats  close  together,  and  the  front 
pair  elevated  materially  above  the  rear  two,  promise  a  re- 
stricted or  unshapely  development.  In  judging  heifer 
calves,  the  mammary  development  should  receive  critical 
inspection.  One  of  the  most  attractive  features  of  a  young 
heifer,  occasionally  seen,  is  a  maternal  character  in  the 
expression  of  face  and  the  general  bearing  of  head  and  neck, 
suggestive  of  the  mature  cow.  In  a  comparable  way,  young 
bulls  sometimes  show  a  combination  of  sex  character  and 
style  suggestive  of  the  mature  male.  Young  bulls,  however, 
vary  much  in  the  development  of  sex  character,  as  shown 
in  head  and  neck.  The  head  should  possess  the  desirable 
qualities  of  conformation  and  expression.  Crest  and  thick- 
ness of  neck  come  with  maturity.  The  scrotum  of  the  male 
should  be  perfectly  developed,  showing  two  glands  of  uni- 
form size.  Until  further  definite  information  becomes 
available,  the  character  of  the  rudimentaries  on  the  calf 
should  not  seriously  influence  the  judge  in  his  placings, 
though  one  might  favor  having  them  placed  well  apart  and 
in  front  of  the  scrotum. 


CHAPTER  XXVTII. 

DESCRIPTIVE  NOTES  ON  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT 
DAIRY  BREEDS. 

The  Jersey  breed  of  cattle  originated  on  the  Island  of 
Jersey  in  the  English  Channel,  near  the  coast  of  France. 
These  cattle  are  commonly  referred  to  as  fawn-colored,  as 
they  resemble  the  grayish-brown  color  characteristic  of  the 


Fig.  183. — "White  markings  on  Jerseys  are  not  rare."  (From  photo  of 
Successful  Queen  278743.  having  record  of  13.088  Ibs.  milk  and  803  Ihs. 
butter  in  a  year.  Owned  by  Hood  Farm.  Photo  by  Hildebrand.) 

323 


324 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


common  deer.  Various  shades  of  fawn,  however,  are  recog- 
nized, such  as  yellow,  red,  brown,  mulberry,  silver,  etc. 
White  markings  on  Jerseys  are  not  rare,  although  not 
popular  with  many  breeders.  The  hair  about  the  muzzle, 
along  over  the  backbone,  and  inside  the  legs,  is  often  a 
creamy  or  grayish  white  color.  The  Jersey  is  distinctly  a 
dairy  breed,  and  in  its  most  approved  form  is  of  ideal 


Fig.   184. — Jersey   bull,   Raleigh's  Fairy   Boy,   a  well-known   champion   of 
Island  breeding,  owned  by  C.  I.  Hudson. 

dairy  type.  Popular  weights  at  maturity  are  1,250  to  1,400 
pounds  for  the  bulls,  and  850  to  900  for  the  cows.  Ameri- 
can families  tend  to  be  somewhat  larger  and  coarser  than 
those  of  Island  breeding.  The  head  should  be  moderately 
short  and  dished,  the  horns  of  a  waxy  or  amber-yellow  color, 
and  crumpled,  turning  by  graceful  curve  until  the  points 
are  directed  somewhat  inward.  The  horns  are  dark  at  the 
tips.  The  withers  are  often  quite  refined,  the  shoulders 
somewhat  prominent,  the  thighs  thin,  and  the  limbs  neat 
and  showing  much  refinement  of  bone.  The  ideal  udder 


THE   MORE   IMPORTANT  DAIRY   BREEDS  325 

is  carried  well  forward,  as  well  as  high  up  behind.  The 
teats  are  frequently  somewhat  small  and  short.  Many 
American  bred  cows  have  udders  with  more  or  less  abbrevi- 
ated fronts.  The  skin  is  commonly  thin,  mellow  and  elas- 
tic, and  shows  a  rich  yellow  secretion,  especially  in  the 
ears,  and  on  vulva,  udder  and  thigh.  The  most  striking 
features  in  the  appearance  of  the  Jersey  are  the  color,  the 
wedge  form,  the  short,  dished  face,  the  prominent,  beauti- 
ful eye,  the  fine  bone,  and  the  deer-like  character  of  the 


Fig.  185. — Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  on  the  right,  and  Lass  38th  of  Hood 

Farm  on  left. 

young  calves.  Jerseys  are  not  large  milkers,  though  yield- 
ing well  for  their  size.  Up  to  February  29,  1916,  the  5,244 
Jerseys  in  the  register  of  merit  averaged  7,792  pounds  of 
milk.  Many  cows  of  the  breed  have  produced  10,000  pounds 
each  within  a  year.  The  largest  milk  record  for  this  period, 
up  to  January  1,  1916,  was  that  of  19,695  pounds  made  by 
the  cow  Passport  219742.  Jersey  milk  usually  contains 
4J/2  to  5  per  cent  fat,  and  from  it  the  choicest  grade  of 
butter  is  made.  Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  189748,  has  to 
her  credit  the  largest  yield  of  milk  fat  in  a  year,  viz., 
999.14  pounds.  The  males  are  naturally  of  a  nervous  dis- 
position, while  the  females  are  quiet  and  domestic. 


326  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  JERSEY  BULL. 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  May  7,   1913.) 
HEAD,  10  Points:  Counts 

A  —  Broad,  medium  length;  face  dished;  narrow  be- 
tween horns;  horns  medium  in  size  and  in- 
curving .................  5 

B  —  Muzzle,  broad;  nostrils  open;  eyes  full  and  bold; 
entire  expression  one  of  vigor,  resolution  and 
masculinity  ................  5 

I7ECK,  7  Points: 

Medium  length,   with   full  crest   at   maturity;    clean   at 

throat    ..................         7 

BODY,  57  Points: 

A  —  Shoulders   full  and   strong,   good   distance   through 

from  point  to  point,  with  well-defined  withers; 

chest  deep  and  full  between  and  just  back   of 

forelegs          ................       15 

B  —  Barrel,    long,    of   good   depth    and   breadth,   with 

strong,,  rounded,  well-sprung  ribs        ......      15 

C  —  Back,  straight  and  strong        ..........        5 

D  —  Bump,    of   good  length   and   proportion   to   size   of 

body,  and  level  from  hip-bones  to  rump-bones     .  .         7 
E  —  Loins,    broad    and    strong;    hips    rounded,    and    of 

medium  width  compared  with  female        .  .       .  .         7 
F  —  Thighs,  rather  flat,  well  cut  up  behind,  high  arched 

flank      ..................         3 

G  —  Legs,  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  quality,  well 

apart,  with  good  feet,  and  not  to  weave  or  cross 

in  walking    ................         5 

RUDIMENTARY  TEATS,  2  Points: 

Well    placed       ..................        2 

HIDE,  2  Points: 

Loose  and  mellow      ................        2 


T'AIL,  2  Points: 

Thin,    long,    reaching   the   hock,    with   good    switch,    not 

coarse  or  high  at  setting-on         ........         2 

SIZE,  5  Points: 

Mature  bulls,  1,200  to  1,500  pounds      ........        5 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE,   15  Points: 

Thoroughly  masculine  in  character,  with  a  harmonious 
blending  of  the  parts  to  each  other;  thoroughly 
robust,  and  such  an  animal  as  in  a  herd  of  wild 
cattle  would  likely  become  master  of  the  herd  by 
the  law  of  natural  selection  and  survival  of  the 
fittest  ..................  IS 

Total  .  .       .  .    100 


THE    MORE    IMPORTANT    DAIRY    BREEDS  30? 

FOE  JERSEY  COW. 

(Adopted  by  Ihc   American  Jersey   Cattle  Club,   May  7,   1913.) 

DAIEY  TEMPERAMENT  AND  CONSTITUTION. 
HEAD,  7  Points:  Counts 

A — Medium  size,  lean;  face  dished;  broad  between  eyes; 

horns  medium  size,  incurving        3 

B — Eyes  full  and  placid;  ears  medium  size,  fine,  carried 
alert  ;     muzzle     broad,     with     wide-open     nostrils 

and  muscular  lips;  jaw  strong 4 

NECK,  4  Points: 

Thin,    rather   long,    with    clean   throat,    neatly   joined   to 

head  and   shoulders 4 

BODY,  37  Points: 

A — Shoulders  light,  good  distance  through  from  point  to 
point,  but  thin  at  withers;  chest  deep  and  full 

between  and  just  back  of  forelegs 5 

B — Ribs  amply  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving  wedge 
shape,  with  deep,  large  abdomen,  firmly  held  up, 

with  strong  muscular  development      10 

C — Back  straight  and  strong,  with  prominent  spinal  pro- 
cesses;  loins  broad  and  strong    .  .       .         .  .       .  .        5 

D — Rump  long  to  tail-setting,  and  level  from  hip-bones 

to  rump-bones         6 

K — Hip-bones  high  and  wide  apart         3 

I-1 — Thighs    flat    and    wide    apart,    giving    ample    room 

for    udder '•'• 

<i  Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  quality,  well 
apart,  with  good  feet,  and  not  to  weave  or  cross 

in  walking 

H — Hide  loose  and  mellow        2 

T — Tail    thin,    long,    with    good    switch,    not    coarse    at 

setting-on 1 

MAMMARY  DEVELOPMENT. 
UDDER,  26  Points: 

A — Large  size,  flexible   and  not  fleshy    .  .       6 

B — Broad,    level   or    spherical,    not    deeply    cut   between 

teats       4 

C — Fore  udder  full  and  well  rounded,  running  well  for- 
ward of  front  teats  .10 

D — Rear    udder   well    rounded,    and   well   out    and    up 

behind 6 

TEATS,  8  Points: 

Of    good    and    uniform   length    and    size,    regularly    and 

squarely   placed s 

MILK-VEINS,   4  Points: 

Large,    long,    tortuous    and   elastic,    entering   large    and 

numerous  orifices  ' 

SIZE,  4  Points: 

Mature  cows,   800   to  1,000  pounds         I 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE,   10  Points: 

A  symmetrical  balancing  of  all  the  parts,  and  a  propor- 
tion of  parts  to  each  other,  depending  on  size  of 
animal,  with  the  general  appearance  of  a  high- 
class  animal,  with  capacity  for  food  and  produc- 
tiveness at  pail 10 

Total     .  100 


328 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


The  Holstein-Friesian  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  Hol- 
land, where  it  has  been  bred  for  centuries.  The  charac- 
teristic color  of  this  breed  is  black  and  white,  in  solid  spots 
of  each  color.  A  popular  combination  consists  of  slightly 
more  white  than  black.  Occasionally  one  will  see  cattle 
of  this  breed  that  are  nearly  all  white.  Red  and  white 
calves  are  dropped  in  American  herds  at  rare  intervals, 
but  in  Holland  there  are  a  few  herds  of  this  color  combina- 


Fig.  186. — Holstein-Friesian  bull,  Rag  Apple  Korndyke  8th,  sold  for 
$25,000.  Owned  by  Oliver  Cabana,  Jr.  (Photo  by  courtesy  American 
Agriculturist.) 

tion.  This  is  a  large  breed,  and  mature  bulls  weigh  usu- 
ally 1,800  to  2,000  pounds,  and  cows  1,250  to  1,400  pounds. 
There  is  considerable  variation  in  type  of  this  breed,  rang- 
ing from  true  dairy  to  that  of  real  beef  conformation.  This 
variation  is  pronounced  among  both  bulls  and  cows.  A 
ring  of  aged  Holstein-Friesian  bulls  shows  marked  differ- 
ence in  character.  One  may  easily  .find  here  three  types, 
dairy,  beef  and  dual-purpose,  though  the  beef  type  is  not 


THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  DAIRY  BREEDS     ;rj!) 

abundant.  The  more  popular  style  is  the  dairy  type,  but  with 
somewhat  more  thickness  of  thighs  and  smoothness  of  flesh- 
ing. The  most  striking  features  of  this  breed  are  the  large 
size,  black-and-white  spotted  color  and  big  udder.  The 
heads  incline  to  be  somewhat  long  and  narrow,  and  the 


Fi£.  187. — IIolstein-Friesian  female.  Lady  Pontiac  Johanna.  Has  a 
three-year-old  record  of  41.81  Ibs.  butter  in  seven  days.  (Photo  by 
courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 

horns  seem  small  for  so  large  a  body,  the  rump  is  long  and 
frequently  steep,  and  the  thighs  are  large  and  in  many 
cases  tend  to  be  thick  and  beefy.  The  udder  is  a  notable 
feature,  on  some  cows  attaining  great  size  and  capacity.  In 
conformation  it  is  pendant,  instead  of  being  long  and  close 
to  the  belly.  This  breed  is  notable  for  its  milk-producing 
capacity.  The  records  of  2,387  cows  with  official  yearly 


330  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

tests  up  to  January  1,  1916,  showed  an  average  of  14,493.9 
pounds  of  milk.  The  largest  official  yearly  milk  yield  for 
a  cow  of  the  breed  is  that  of  Tilly  Alcartra,  produc- 
ing 30,451.4  pounds.  Holstein-Friesian  milk  tests  3  to 
3y2  per  cent  fat.  The  average  number  of  pounds  of  fat 
produced  in  one  year  by  the  2,387  cows  referred  to  above 
was  495.91,  the  greatest  official  yield  of  fat  by  any  one  cow 
of  the  breed  in  a  year  being  1,205  pounds,  by  Duchess 
Skylark  Ormsby  124514.  The  disposition  of  the  males  in- 
clines to  nervousness  and  irritability,  but  the  cows  are  very 
quiet  and  placid. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  BULL. 

(Adopted  by  Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  America.) 

The  ratings  in  parenthesis  relate  entirely  to  the  method  of  application  agreed 
upon  by  the.  Inspectors,  in  order  to  secure  uniformity  of  work.  The  abbrevia- 
tions are  as  follows:  vs,  very  slight;  s,  slight;  m,  marked;  vm,  very  marked; 
o,  extreme. 

PARTS  DESCRIPTION  ^oSf* 

Head — Showing  full  vigor;   elegant  in  contour.      (Discredit, 

vs   %,  s   14,  m  %,  vm  %,  e  1.) 2 

Forehead — Broad    between    the    eyes;    dishing.       (Discredit, 

vs  %,  s   %,  m  y2,  vm   %,  e  1.) 2 

Face — Of  medium  length;  clean  and  trim,  especially  under 
the  eyes;  the  bridge  of  the  nose  straight.  (Discredit, 
s  Vs,  m  14,  e  %.) 2 

Muzzle — Broad  with   strong  lips.      (Discredit,    s    %,   m    ^4, 

e    %.)         1 

Ears — Of  medium  size ;  of  fine  texture ;  the  hair  plentiful  and 
soft;  the  secretions  oily  and  abundant.  (Discredit,  m 
%,  e  %.) 1 

Eyes — Large,    full,   mild,    bright.      (Discredit,   s    %,   m    14, 

e  Y2.)         2 

Horns — Short;  of  medium  size  at  base,  gradually  diminish- 
ing toward  tips ;  oval ;  inclining  forward,  moderately 
curved  inward;  of  fine  texture,  in  appearance  waxy. 
(Discredit,  m  %,  e  %.)  1 

Neck — Long;  finely  crested  (if  the  animal  is  mature)  ;  fine 
and  clean  at  juncture  with  the  head ;  nearly  free  from 
dewlap;  strongly  and  smoothly  joined  to  shoulders. 
(Discredit,  vs  %,  s  %,  m  %,  vm  %,  e  1.) 5 

Shoulders — Of  medium  height;  of  medium  thickness,  and 
smoothly  rounded  at  tops;  broad  and  full  at  sides; 
smooth  over  front.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  *4,  m  l/2,  vm 
%,  e  1.) 4 


THE   MORE   IMPORTANT  DAIRY  BREEDS  331 


PARTS  DESCRIPTION  Sco 

Chest  —  Deep  and  low;  well  filled  and  smooth  in  the  brisket; 
broad  between  the  forearms:  full  in  the  foreflanks  |  or 
through  at  the  heart.]  (Discredit,  vs  1A,  s  y2,  m  1, 
vm  1%,  e  2.)  ..................  7 

Crops  —  -Comparatively   full;    nearly   level   with   the   shoulders. 

(Discredit,  vs  ],4,  s  y2,  in  1,  vm  ll/2,  e  2.)    ......        4 

Chine  —  Strong;  straight,  broadly  developed,  with  open  verte- 

brae.    (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  V4,  m  y2,  vm  %,  e  1.)    .  .       .  .        G 

Barrel  —  Long;  well  rounded;  with  large  abdomen;  strongly 
and  trimly  held  up.  (Discredit,  vs  *4  ,  s  y2,  m  1,  vm 
ll/2,  e  2.)  ....................  7 

loin  and  Hips—  Broad;  level  or  nearly  level  between  hook- 
bones;  level  and  strong  laterally;  spreading  out  from  the 
chine  broadly  and  nearly  level;  the  hook-bones  fairly 
prominent.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  1/4,  m  l/2,  vm  %,  e  1.)  7 

Hump  —  Long;  broad;  high;  nearly  level  laterally;  compara- 
tively full  above  the  thurl;  carried  out  straight  to  drop- 
ping of  tail.  (Discredit,  vs  Vs,  s  %,  m  l/2,  vm  %,  e  1.)  7 

Thurl  —  High;  broad.      (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  i/2,  m  1,  vm  ll/2, 

e  2.)  ....................        4 

Quarters  —  Deep;  broad;  straight  behind;  wide  and  full  at 
sides;  open  in  the  twist.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  1/4,  na  y2, 
vm  %,  e  1.)  ..................  f> 

Flanks  —  Deep  ;  full.    (Discredit,  vs  ys  ,  s  %  ,  m  Vz,  vm  %  ,  e  1.  )        2 

Legs  —  Comparatively  short;  clean  and  nearly  straight;  wide 
apart;  firmly  and  squarely  set  under  the  body;  arms 
wide,  strong  and  tapering  ;  feet  of  medium  size,  round, 
solid  and  deep.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  %,  m  }£,  vm  %, 
el.)  ....................  5 

Tail  —  Large  at  base,  the  setting  well  back;  tapering  finely 
to  switch;  the  end  of  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or  below; 
the  switch  full.  (Discredit,  s  %,  ni  y^,  e  y2.)  .  .  .  .  2 

Hair  and  Handling  —  Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine,  soft 
and  furry;  skin  of  medium  thickness  and  loose;  mellow 
under  the  hand;  the  secretions  oily,  abundant  and  of  a 
rich  brown  or  yellow  color.  (Discredit,  vs  l/±,  s  l/2,  m 
1,  vm  \y2,  e  2.)  ........  '.  .......  10 

Mammary  Veins  —  Large  ;  full  ;  entering  large  orifices  ;  double 
extension;  with  special  development,  such  as  forks, 
branches,  connections,  etc.  (Discredit,  vs  ^4,  s  %, 
m  1,  vm  1V2,  e  2.)  ................  10 

Rudimentary  Teats  —  Large;  well  placed.      (Discredit,  vs  %, 

s   *4,  m  y2,  vm  %,  e  1.)  ..............        2 

Escutcheon  —  Largest;   finest.      (Discredit,   vs    J4,    s   1,   m  2, 

vm   3,    e  4.)       ..................        2 

*General    Vigor  —  For    deficiency    Inspectors    shall    discredit 
from    the    total    received    not    to    exceed    eight    points. 
(Discredit,  vs  1,  s  2,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8.)    .......... 

*Creneral  Symmetry  and  Fineness  —  For  deficiency  Inspectors 
shall  discredit  from  the  total  received  not  to  exceed 
eight  points.  (Discredit,  vs  1,  s  2,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8.)  .  . 
*General  Style  and  Bearing  —  For  deficiency  Inspectors  shall 
discredit  from  the  total  received  not  to  exceed  eight 
points.  (Discredit,  vs  1,  s  2,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8.)  ...... 


332  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


PARTS  DESCRIPTION 

*Credits  for  Offspring  —  A  bull  shall  be  credited  one  point  in 
excess  of  what  he  is  otherwise  entitled  to,  for  each 
and  every  animal  of  which  he  is  sire  actually  entered  in 
the  Advanced  Register,  not  to  exceed  ten  in  number.  . 

*  In  scaling  for  the  Advanced  Register,  defects  caused 
solely  by  age,  or  by  accident,  or  by  disease  not  heredi- 
tary, shall  not  be   considered.     But  in  scaling  for  the 
show   ring,    such   defects   shall   be    considered   and   duly 
discredited 

*A  bull  that  in  the  judgment  of  the  Inspector  will 
not  reach,  at  full  age  and  in  good  flesh,  1,800  Ibs.,  live 
weight,  shall  be  disqualified  for  entry  in  the  Advanced 
Register 

*  No  bull  shall  be  received  to  the  Advanced  Register, 
that  with  all  credits  due  him  will  not  scale,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Inspector,  at  east  80  points.      (See  amend- 
ment to  Rule  IV.,  an  exception  to  these  requirements.) 


Perfection  ..................    100 

Total  discredit  .  . 


Net   score. 


*  Not   now   in   use  by   Advanced   Register,   but   of  great   value   as  an   aid   in 
judging  cattle. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  COW. 

(Adopted  by  Holstein-Friesian  Association  of  America.) 

The  ratings  in  parenthesis  relate  entirely  to  the  method  of  application 
agreed  upon  by  the  Inspectors,  in  order  to  secure  uniformity  of  work.  The 
abbreviations  are  as  follows:  vs,  very  slight;  s,  slight;  m,  marked;  vm,  very 
marked;  e,  extreme. 


PARTS  DESCRIPTION 

Head — Decidedly  feminine  in  appearance;  fine  in  contour. 

(Discredit,  vs  %,  s  %,  m  %,  vm  %,  e  1.)  ..  ..  2 

Forehead — Broad  between  the  eyes;  dishing.  (Discredit,  vs 

Vs,  s  %,  m  y2,  vm  &,  e  1)  2 

Face — Of  medium  length ;  clean  and  trim  especially  under 
the  eyes,  showing  facial  veins;  the  bridge  of  the  nose 
straight.  (Discredit,  s  %,  m  %,  e  J4.) 2 

Muzzle — Broad  with  strong  lips  (Discredit,  s  %,  m  1/4, 

e  y2.)  .  .  1 

Ears — Of  medium  size;  of  fine  texture;  the  hair  plentiful 
and  soft;  the  secretions  oily  and  abundant.  (Dis- 
credit, m  ya,  e  %.)  1 

Eyes — Large;  full;  mild;  bright.  (Discredit,  s  Vs,  m  %, 

e  %.)  'J 

Horns — Small;  tapering  finely  toward  the  tips;  set  moder- 
ately narrow  at  base;  oval;  inclining  forward;  well 
bent  inward;  of  fine  texture;  in  appearance  waxy. 
(Discredit,  m  %,  e  %.)  1 


THE   MORE   IMPORTANT   DAIRY   BREEDS  333 


PARTS  DESCRIPTION 

Neck  —  Long;  fine  and  clean  at  juncture  with  the  head; 
free  from  dewlap;  evenly  and  smoothly  joined  to 
shoulders.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  %,  m  l/2,  vm  fa,  e  1.)  4 

Shoulders  —  Slightly  lower  than  the  hips;  fine  and  even 
over  tops;  moderately  broad  and  full  at  sides.  (Dis- 
credit, vs  %,  s  %,  m  %,  vm  %,  e  1.)  ......  3 

Chest  —  Of  moderate  depth  and  lowness;  smooth  and  mod- 
erately full  in  the  brisket;  full  in  the  foreflanks 
(or  through  the  heart).  (Discredit,  vs  %,  a  l/2,  m  1, 
vm  1V2,  e  2.)  ................  6 

Crops  —  Moderately  full.  (Discredit,  vs  1/4,  s  J4,  m  fa, 

vm  iy2,  e  2.)  ................  2 

Chine  —  Straight;  strong;  broadly  developed,  with  open 

vertebrce.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  %,  m  %,  vm  %,  e  1.)  6 

Barrel  —  Long  ;  of  wedge  shape  ;  well  rounded  ;  with  a  large 
abdomen,  trimly  held  up  (in  judging  the  last  item 
age  must  be  considered).  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  %, 
m  J/2,  vm  %,  e  1.)  ..............  7 

Loin  and  Hips  —  Broad;  level  or  nearly  level  between  the 
hook-bones;  level  and  strong  laterally;  spreading 
from  chine  broadly  and  nearly  level;  hook-bones 
fairly  prominent.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  %,  m  y2, 
vm  %,  e  1.)  ................  6 

Bump  —  Long;  high;  broad  with  roomy  pelvis;  nearly  level 
laterally;  comparatively  full  above  the  thurl;  carried 
out  straight  to  dropping  of  tail.  (Discredit,  vs  %, 
s  i/4,  m  ^2,  vm  %,  e  1.)  ..............  6 

Thurl  —  High;  broad.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  %,  m  1,  vm  1%, 

e  2.)  ....................  3 

Quarters  —  Deep;  straight  behind;  twist  filled  with  devel- 
opment of  udder;  wide  and  moderately  full  at  the 
sides.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  1A,  m  %,  vm  %,  e  1.)  4 

Flanks  —  Deep;  comparatively  full.  (Discredit,  vs  %, 

s  %,  m  l/2,  vm  fa,  e  1.)  ............  2 

Legs  —  Comparatively  short;  clean  and  nearly  straight; 
wide  apart;  firmly  and  squarely  set  under  the  body; 
feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep.  (Dis- 
credit, vs  %,  s  14,  m  %,  vm  %,  e  1.)  ......  4 

Tail  —  Large  at  base,  the  setting  well  back  ;  tapering  finely 
to  switch  ;  the  end  of  the  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or 
below;  the  switch  full.  (Discredit,  s  %,  m  %,  e  %.)  2 

Hair  and  Handling  —  Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine, 
soft  and  furry  ;  the  skin  of  medium  thickness  and 
loose;  mellow  under  the  hand;  the  secretions  oily, 
abundant  and  of  a  rich  brown  or  yellow  color.  (Dis- 
credit, vs  1/4,  s  Vz,  m  1,  vm  ll/2,  e  2.)  ......  8 

Mammary  Veins  —  Very  large;  very  crooked  (age  must  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  judging  of  size  and  crook- 
edness) ;  entering  very  large  or  numerous  orifices; 
double  extension;  with  special  developments,  such  as 
branches,  connections,  etc.  (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  %, 
m  1,  vm  l*/2,  e  2.)  ..............  10 

Udder  —  Very  capacious;  very  flexible;  quarters  even; 
nearly  filling  the  space  in  the  rear  below  the  twist, 
extending  well  forward  in  the  front;  broad  and  well 
held  up.  (Discredit,  vs  K,  s  V2,  m  1,  vm  1^,  e  2.)  12 


334  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


PARTS  DESCRIPTION 

Teats  —  Well   formed,    wide   apart,    plumb    and   of   convenient 

size.      (Discredit,  vs  %,  s  ^,  m  1,  vm  IJ^,  e  2.)         .  . 
Escutcheon  —  Largest;   finest.      (Discredit,  vs-y2,   s   1,  m  2, 

vm  3,   e  4.)      .................. 

*General  Vigor  —  For   deficiency  Inspectors   shall   discredit 

from    the   total    received    not    to    exceed    eight    points. 

(Discredit,  vs  1,  s  2,  m  3,  vm  5,   e  8.) 
*General   Symmetry   and   Fineness  —  For  deficiency   Inspec- 

tors   shall    discredit    from    the    total    received    not    to 

exceed    eight    points.       (Discredit,    vs    1,    s    %,    m    3, 

vm    5,    e    8.)       ......  .  .       ... 

*General  Style  and  Bearing  —  For  deficiency,  Inspectors 
shall  discredit  from  the  total  received  not  to  exceed 
eight  points.  (Discredit,  vs  1,  s  H,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8.) 

*Credits  for  Excess  of  Requirement  in  Production. 
A  cow  shall  be  credited  one  point  in  excess  of  what 
she  is  otherwise  entitled  to,  for  each  and  every  8 
per  cent  that  her  milk  or  butter  record  exceeds  the 
minimum  requirement. 

*In  scaling  for  the  Advanced  Register,  defects 
caused  solely  by  age,  or  by  accident,  or  by  disease 
not  hereditary,  shall  not  be  considered.  But  in  scal- 
ing for  the  show  ring,  such  defects  shall  be  consid- 
ered and  duly  discredited 

*A  cow  that,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Inspector,  will 
not  reach  at  full  age,  in  milking  condition  and  ordin- 
ary flesh,  1,000  Ibs.,  live  weight,  shall  be  disqualified 
for  entry  in  the  Advanced  Register  ......... 

*No  cow  shall  be  received  to  the  Advanced  Regis- 
ter that,  with  all  credits  due  her,  will  not  scale,  in 
the  judgment  of  the  Inspector,  at  least  75  points. 
(See  in  last  paragraph  of  Rule  VI  an  exception  to 
these  requirements.) 


Perfection  100 

Total   discredit  .  . 


Net    score . 


*  Not  now  in  use  by  Advanced  Register,  but  of  great  value  as  an  aid  in 
judging  cattle. 

The  Guernsey  breed  of  cattle  originated  on  the  Island  of 
Guernsey  off  the  coast  of  France,  nearby  Jersey.  Like  the 
latter,  it  is  an  old  breed.  Guernsey  cattle  resemble  Jerseys, 
but  are  usually  yellowish  or  reddish  fawn  in  color.  White 
spots  are  very  common.  They  are  somewhat  larger  than 
the  Jerseys,  mature  bulls  weighing  about  1,500  pounds  and 


THK  MORE  IMPORTANT  DAIRY  BREEDS 


335 


cows  1,050  pounds  or  ,so.  Guernseys  are  often  rather  pl;iin 
of  head  and  rough  of  shoulder  and  appear  coarser  than 
the  Jersey.  The  aged  males  vary  in  type  fully  as  much  as 
do  the  Holstein-Friesian  males,  and  often  incline  to  a  thick, 
fleshy  conformation  not  admired  by  students  of  dairy  form. 
The  skin  is  noted  for  its  soft,  mellow,  elastic  quality,  and 
yellow  color,  especially  in  the  ear  and  about  the  vulva, 
thighs  and  udder.  The  horns  also  show  much  yellow  color- 
ing. Of  4,719  cows  in  the  advanced  register  up  to  April 
30,  1916,  the  average  yield  was  8,806  pounds.  The  largest 


Fig.  188.- 


Juernsey  hull.  "Galaxy's  Sequel,  noted  as  a  sire  of 
advanced  registry  cows." 


official  milk  yield  for  a  Guernsey  cow  in  a  year,  was  24,008 
pounds  by  Murne  Cowan  19597.  Guernsey  milk  tests  rich 
in  fat,  often  exceeding  5  per  cent,  and  the  fat  globules  carry 
so  high  a  yellow  tint  as  not  to  require  butter  coloring  at  any 
time.  The  average  yield  of  fat  produced  by  the  4,719  cows 
noted  above  was  437.45  pounds,  the  largest  record  of  1,098.18 
pounds  being  by  Murne  Cowan  19597.  Guernsey  butter 
ranks  as  of  the  best  class.  In  temperament  the  Guernsey 
male  is  perhaps  somewhat  quieter  than  its  Jersey  cousin, 
though  the  cows  do  not  materially  differ. 


336 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  189. — Guernsey  cow,  "May  Rilma  22761,  with  record  of  1,073  Ibs. 
butter  fat   in   one  year."      (Photo    by   courtesy   American    Agriculturist.) 


SCALE   OF  POINTS  FOR  GUERNSEY  BULL. 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  December  13,  1899.) 
SCALE   OF  POINTS  Points 

DAIRY  TEMPERAMENT,  CONSTITUTION,  38  Points: 

Clean  cut,  lean  face;  strong  sinewy  jaw;  wide  muzzle 
with  wide-open  nostrils;  full,  bright  eye  with  quiet 
and  gentle  expression;  forehead  long  and  broad.  .  5 

Long  masculine  neck  with  strong  juncture  to  head ;  clean 
throat.  Backbone  rising  well  between  shoulder 
blades;  large  rugged  spinal  processes,  indicating 
good  development  of  the  spinal  cord  5 

Pelvis  arching  and  wide;  rump  long;  wide,  strong 
structure  of  spine  at  setting  of  tail.  Long,  thin 
tail  with  good  switch.  Thin,  incurving  thighs  .  .  5 

Ribs   amply    and   fully   sprung   and  wide   apart,   giving 

an  open  relaxed  conformation ;  thin,  arching  flank .  .        5 

Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong  muscular  and 
navel  development,  indicative  of  capacity  and 
vitality  15 

Hide  firm  yet  loose,   with  an  oily  feeling  and  texture, 

but  not  thick 3 

DAIRY  PREPOTENCY,  15  Points: 

As  shown  by  having  a  great  deal  of  vigor,  style,  alert- 
ness, and  resolute  appearance  15 


THE   MORE   IMPORTANT  DAIRY   BREEDS  337 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  Points 

RUDIMENT  ARIES  AND  MILK  VEINS,  10  Points: 

Rudimentaries  of  good  size,  squarely  and  broadly  placed 
in  front  of  and  free  from  scrotum.  Milk  vein* 

prominent 10 

INDICATING  COLOR  OF  MILK  IN  OFFSPRING,  15  Points: 
Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone  of  tail,  at  base 

of  horns  and  body  generally;  hoofs  amber  colored.  .       15 

SYMMETRY  AND    SIZE,    22   Points: 

Color  of  hair,    a   shade   of  fawn  with  white  markings. 

Cream-colored  nose.     Horns  amber-colored,  curving 

and    not    coarse         8 

Size   for  the  Breed: — Mature   bulls   four  years   old  or 

over,  about  1,500  Ibs 4 

General  appearance  as  indicative  of  the  power  to  beget 

animals  of  strong  dairy  qualities 10 

Total 100 

FOR  GUERNSEY  COW. 

DAIRY  TEMPERAMENT,  CONSTITUTION,  38  Points: 

Clean  cut,  lean  face,  strong,  sinewy  jaw;  wide  muzzle 
with  wide-open  nostrils;  full,  bright  eye  with  quiet 
and  gentle  expression;  forehead  long  and  broad..  5 

Long,  thin  neck  with  strong  juncture  to  lu>ad ;  clt  an 
throat.  Backbone  rising  well  between  shoulder 
blades;  large  rugged  spinal  processes,  indicating 
good  development  of  the  spinal  cord  5 

Pelvis,  arching  and  wide;  rump  long,  wide;  strong  struc- 
ture of  spine  at  setting-on  of  tail.  Long  thin  tail 
with  good  switch.  Thin  incurving  thighs  .  .  .  .  5 

Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving  an 

open,  relaxed  conformation ;  thin  arching  flanks   .  .         5 

Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong  muscular  and 
navel  development,  indicative  of  capacity  and 
vitality  1  ."> 

Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an   oily  feeling  and  texture, 

but  not  thick ^ 

MILKING   MARKS    DENOTING    QUANTITY    OF    FLOW, 
10  Points: 

Escutcheon  wide  on  thighs;  high  and  broad,  with  thigh 

ovals 2 

Milk    veins    long,    crooked,    branching    and    prominent, 

with  large  or  deep  wells 8 

UDDER  FORMATION,  26  Points: 

Udder  full  in  front 8 

Udder  full  and  well  up  behind        8 

Udder  of  large  size  and  capacity •* 

Teats  well  apart,  squarely  placed,  and  of  good  and  <-v<  11 

size <> 

INDICATING  COLOR  OF  MILK,  15  Points: 

Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone  of  tail,  at  base 
of  horns,  on  udder,  teats  and  body  generally.  Hoof, 
amber  colored..  .  15  * 


338 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


SCALE   OF   POINTS  Points 

DENOTING    QUALITY     OF    FLOW, 


but   not  too  meaty        6 


MILKING    MARKS 
6  Points: 

Udder  showing  plenty  of   substan 
SYMMETRY  AND  SIZE,  5  Points: 

Color   of   hair   a    shade   of   fawn,    with   white   markings. 
Cream   colored  nose.      Horns  amber   colored,   small, 

curved,  and  not  coarse 

Size   for  the   Breed — Mature   cows,    four    years    old   or 
over,    about   1.050   Ibs. 


100 

The  Ayrshire  breed  of  cattle  has  its  native  home  in  south- 
western Scotland,  with  the  county  of  Ayr  as  a  center.  The 
color  is  a  combination  of  red,  brown  and  white  markings, 
with  white  predominating  as  a  color  fad.  The  size  of  the 
Ayrshire  is  about  medium  and  at  maturity  standard 
weights  will  approximate  1,500  pounds  for  the  bull  and 
1,100  for  the  cows.  This  is  recognized  as  a  distinct  dairy 
type  breed,  but  the  inclination  is  to  be  a  trifle  smooth-fleshed 
rather  than  angular  like  the  Jersey.  The  very  striking 


>Fig.  190.-=-Ayrshire  bull,  "Bargenoch  Bonnie  Scotland,  a  famous 
bull  of  the  breed." 


THE   MORE    IMPORTANT   DAIRY   BREEDS  339 


Fig.  191. — Ayrshire  cow,  "Midland  Nellie  IV.,"  a  prize-winner  at  the 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  Show  of  Scotland. 

features  of  the  breed  are  the  head,  with  its  rather  long, 
large  and  erect  horns,  the  color  of  hair,  the  capacious  body 
and  beautiful,  shapely  udder.  From  a  show  point  of  view 
the  Ayrshire  udder  is  more  uniformly  developed  than  that 
of  any  other  breed,  but  in  Scotland  there  is  considerable 
criticism  that  beauty  of  form  and  small  teats  have  sup- 
planted a  less  shapely  but  more  valuable  udder,  from  the 
standpoint  of  production.  The  skin  of  the  Ayrshire  in- 
clines to  be  somewhat  thick  and  lacking  in  mellowness  in 
comparison  with  some  other  breeds.  Cows  of  this  breed 
produce  very  good  yields  of  milk.  For  the  year  ending 
December  31,  1915,  there  was  produced  an  average  of  9,406 
pounds  of  milk  by  1,938  cows  in  advanced  registry  tests; 
tho  largest  official  year's  record  being  25,329  pounds  by 
Oarclaugh  May  Mischief  27944.  The  milk  is  just  average 
in  fat  content,  testing  about  3^  to  3%  per  cent.  Lily  of 
Willowmoor  22269,  the  most  famous  cow  of  the  breed,  pro- 
duced 955.56  pounds  of  fat  in  a  year.  She  also  has  a  five- 


340  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

years'  record  of  84,991  pounds  of  milk  and  3,362.35  pounds 
of  fat.  Ayrshires  are  fairly  quiet  of  temperament,  espe- 
cially the  cows,  but  the  bulls  incline  to  show  considerable 
nervous  character. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOE  AYRSHIRE  BULL. 

(Adopted  by  United  States  and  Canadian  Ayrshire  Breeders' 
Associations,  1906.) 

Standard  of 
SCALE   OF  POINTS  Perfect 

Score 
HEAD,  16  Points: 

Forehead,  broad  and  clearly  denned 2 

Horns,  strong  at  base,  set  wide  apart,  inclining 

upward  t  > 1 

Face,  of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  showing  facial 

veins 2 

Muzzle,  broad  and  strong,  without  coarseness  .  .  .  .  1 

Nostrils,  large  and  open 2 

Jaws,  wide  at  the  base  and  strong 1 

Eyes,  moderately  large,  full  and  bright 3 

Ears  of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert  .  .  .  .  1 

Expression,  full  of  vigor,  resolution  and  masculinity  3 

NECK,  10  Points: 

Of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  large  and 
strong  in  the  muscles  on  top,  inclined  to  flatness 
on  sides,  enlarging  symmetrically  toward  the 
shoulders,  throat  clean  and  free  from  loose 
skin  10 

FOEEQUAETEES,  15  Points: 

Shoulders,  strong,  smoothly  blending  into  body  with 
good  distance  through  from  point  to  point  and 
fine  on  top 3 

Chest,  low,  deep  and  full  between  back  and  forelegs        8 

Brisket,  deep,  not  too  prominent  and  with  very  little 

dewlap 2 

Legs  and  feet:  legs  well  apart,  straight  and  short, 
shanks  fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm;  feet  of 
medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep 2 

BODY,  18  Points: 

Back,  short  and  straight,  chine  strongly  developed 

and  open  jointed  5 

Loin,  broad,  strong  and  level 4 

Eibs,  long,  broad,  strong,  well  sprung  and  wide 

apart 4 

Abdomen,  large  and  deep,  trimly  held  up  with  mus- 
cular development  4 

Flank,  thin  and  arching 1 


THE   MORE   IMPORTANT  DAIRY   BREEDS  341 

Standard  of 
SCALE   OF  POINTS  Perfect 

Score 
HINDQUARTERS,  16  Points: 

Rump,  level,  long  from  hooks  to  pin  bones    .  .       .  .        5 
Hooks,  medium  distance  apart,  proportionately  nar- 
rower than  in  female,  not  rising  above  the  level 

of  the  back 2 

Pin  bones,  high,  wide  apart      .  .  . ;       2 

Thighs,  thin,  long  and  wide  apart    .  .    " 4 

Tail,  fine,  long  and  set  on  level  with  back        .  .       .  .        1 
Legs  and  feet:    legs  straight,    set  well   apart,    shanks 
fine  and  smooth;  feet  medium  size,  round,  solid 

and  deep,  not  to  cross  in  walking 2 

SCROTUM,  3  Points: 

Well  developed  and  strongly  carried 3 

RUDIMENT  ARIES,  VEINS,  ETC.,  4  Points: 

Teats,  of  uniform  size,  squarely  placed,  wide  apart 
and  free  from  scrotum ;  veins  long,  large,  tor- 
tuous, with  extensions  entering  large  orifices; 
escutcheon  pronounced  and  covering  a  large 

surface    4 

Color,  3  Points: 

Red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with  white; 
mahogany  and  white;  each  color  distinctly 

defined 3 

COVERING,  6  Points: 

Skin,  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic   .  .       .  .        3 

Hair,  soft  and  fine      .  .       .  .       2 

Secretions,  oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color       .  .        1 
STYLE,  5  Points: 

Active,  vigorous,  showing  strong  masculine  charac- 
ter, temperament  inclined  to  nervousness,  but 

not   irritable   or   vicious         5 

WEIGHT:  4  Points: 

At  maturity  not  less  than  1,500  pounds 4 

Total 100 

FOR  AYRSHIRE  COW. 

Standard  of 

SCALE    OF   POINTS  Perfect 

Score 
HEAD,  10  Points: 

Forehead,  broad  and  clearly  defined 1 

Horns,  wide  set  on  and  inclining  upward 1 

Face,  of  medium  length,   slightly  dished,   clean  cut, 

showing  veins 2 

Muzzle,  broad  and  strong  without  coarseness,  nos- 
trils large 1 

Jaws,  wide  at  the  base  and  strong 1 

Eyes,  full  and  bright  with  placid  expression  .  .       .  .         3 
Ears,  of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert  .  .       .  .         1 
NECK,  3  Points: 

Fine  throughout,  throat  clean,  neatly  joined  to  head 
and  shoulders,  of  good  length,  moderately  thin, 
nearly  free  from  loose  skin,  elegant  in  bearing.  .  3 


342  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


Standard  of 

SCALE   OF   POINTS  Perfect 

Score 
TOREQUARTERS,  10  Points: 

Shoulders,  light,  good  distance  through  from  point 
to  point,  but  sharp  at  withers,  smoothly  blend- 
ing into  body  .  .  ....  2 

Chest,  low,  deep  and  full  between  and  back  of  fore- 

'  legs 6 

Brisket,  light       1 

Legs  and  feet:  legs  straight  and  short,  well  apart, 
shanks  fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm;  feet 

medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep 1 

BODY,  13  Points: 

Back,    strong    and    straight,    chine    lean,    sharp    and 

open-jointed          4 

Loin,  broad,  strong  and  level 2 

Ribs,   long,   broad,  wide   apart   and  well  sprung       .  .         H 
Abdomen,     capacious,     deep,    firmly    held    up    with 

strong  muscular  development '? 

Flank,    thin   and   arching 1 

HINDQUARTERS,   11  Points: 

Rump,    wide,    level    and    long    from    hooks    to    pin 

bones,  a  reasonable  pelvic  arch  allowed    .  .       .  .         3 
Hooks,   wide    apart    and   not   projecting   above   back 

nor  unduly  over-laid  with  fat 2 

Pin  bones,  high  and  wide  apart        1 

Thighs,  thin,  long  and  wide  apart        2 

Tail,  long,  fine,  set  on  a  level  with  the  back   .  .       .  .         1 
Legs    and    feet:     legs    strong,    short,     straight    when 
viewed  from  behind  and  set  well  apart ;  shanks 
fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm;   feet  medium  size, 

round,   solid   and  deep         2 

UDDER,  22  Points: 

Long,  wide,  deep,  but  not  pendulous,  nor  fleshy; 
firmly  attached  to  the  body,  extending  well  up 
behind  and  far  forward:  quarters  even;  sole 
nearly  level  and  not  indented  between  teats, 
udder  veins  well  developed  and  plainly  visible.  .  22 

TEATS,  8  Points: 

Evenly  placed,  distance  apart  from  side  to  side  equal 
to  half  the  breadth  of  udder,  from  back  to 
front  equal  to  one-third  the  length;  length  2 54 
to  S1/^  inches,  thickness  in  keeping  with  length, 
h.anging  perpendicular  and  not  tapering  .  .  .  .  8 

MAMMARY  VEINS,  5  Points: 

Large,    long,    tortuous,   branching   and   entering   large 

orifices r> 

ESCUTCHEON,  2  Points: 

Distinctly  defined,  spreading  over  thighs  and  ex- 
tending well  upward 

COLOR,  2  Points: 

Red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with  white;  ma- 
hogany and  white,  or  white ;  each  color  dis- 
tinctly defined.  (Brindle  markings  allowed  but 
not  desirable.)  2 


THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  DAIRY  BREEDS 


343 


SCALK    OF   POINTS 

COVERING,  6  Points: 

Skin,  of  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic 

Hair,  soft  and  fine        

Secretions,  oily,    of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color 


Standard  of 
Perfect 
Score 

3 
2 
1 


STYLE,  4  Points: 

Alert,   vigorous,  showing  strong  character;   tempera- 
ment   inclined  to   nervousness,   but   still   docile    .  .         4 

WEIGHT  AT  MATURITY,  not  l«-«s  th.-in  l.miO  Ibs 4 

Total  points loo 


The  Dutch  Belted  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  Holland, 
and  is  of  very  old  ancestry.  It  is  a  dairy  type  of  cattle, 
and  especially  noted  for  its  black  color,  marked  off  by  white 
stripe  or  blanket  of  varying  width  which  encircles  the  body 
between  the  hips  and  shoulders.  This  color  marking  gives 
the  breed  a  very  striking  appearance  when  a  number  of 


I 


Fig.  192, — Dutch  Belted  cow,  champion  at  New  York  State  Fair. 
by  courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 


(Photo 


344  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

animals  are  grouped  on  a  pasture.  In  size,  the  Dutch 
Belted  is  comparable  with  the  Ayrshire  rather  than  the  Hol- 
stein-Friesian,  mature  males  weighing  around  1,500  pounds, 
and  cows  1,100  to  1,200  pounds.  The  horns  tend  to  be 
small,  the  withers  refined,  and  the  thighs  spare.  The  udder 
is  rarely  impressive  in  size  and  form,  and  the  cows  of  the 
breed  thus  far  have  made  few  records  of  importance. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  DUTCH  BELTED  CATTLE. 

(Adopted  by  American  Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Association.) 

Points 

Body — Color  black,  with  a  clearly  denned  continuous  white  belt.  The 
belt  to  be  of  medium  width  beginning  behind  the  shoulders  and  ex- 
tending nearly  to  the  hips 8 

Head — Comparatively    long    and    somewhat    dishing;    broad   between   the 

eyes;  poll  prominent;  muzzle  fine;  dark  tongue 6 

Eyes — Black,  full,  mild.  Horns  long  compared  with  their  diameter  .  .  4 
Neck — Fine,  and  moderately  thin,  and  should  harmonize  in  symmetry 

with  the  head  and  shoulders 6 

Shoulders — Fine   at   the   top,    becoming   deep   and  broad   as   they   extend 

backward  and  downward,  with  a  low   chest        4 

Barrel — Large   and  deep   with   well-developed   abdomen;    ribs   well-rounded 

and  free  from  fat 10 

Hips — Broad,  and  chine  level  with  full  loin 10 

Bump — High,  long,  broad       6 

Hindquarters — Long  and  deep,  rear  line  incurving.  Tail  long,  slim,  taper- 
ing to  a  full  switch 8 

Legs — Short,  clean,  standing  well   apart 3 

Udder — Large,  well  developed  front  and  rear.  Teats  of  convenient  size 
and  wide  apart;  mammary  veins  large,  long  and  crooked,  entering 

large  orifices 20 

Escutcheon       2 

Hair — Fine  and  soft;  skin  of  moderate  thickness,  of  a  rich  dark  or  yel- 
low color 3 

Disposition — Quiet,   free  from   excessive   fat         .  .       .  .       4 

General  condition  and  apparent  constitution        6 


Perfection 1"0 

Scale  of  Points  for  Bulls. 

The  scale  of  points  for  males  shall  be  the  same  as  those  given  for  females, 
except  that  the  udder  shall  be  omitted  and  the  bull  credited  10  points  for  size 
and  widespread  placing  of  rudimentary  teats,  and  10  additional  points  for 
perfection  of  belt. 

The  Kerry  breed  of  cattle  has  its  native  home  in  south- 
west Ireland,  where  it  has  been  known  for  a  long  period  of 
time.  It  is  a  distinctly  black  dairy  breed,  and  should  have 
no  white  markings,  unless  about  the  udder  and  underline, 
and  then  only  in  a  small  way.  Bulls  should  not  have  any 


THK   MORE   IMPORTANT   DAIRY   BREEDS 


345 


white  hairs  on  the  body.  The  size  is  comparable  with  a 
small  Jersey,  as  bulls  should  not  exceed  1,000  pounds  in 
weight  and  the  cows  900  pounds;  the  latter  frequently 
weighing  750  to  800  pounds.  The  distinctive  character- 
istics of  these  cattle  are  the  color,  size  and  head  character, 
the  latter  being  plain  of  face,  with  somewhat  long,  upward- 
turning  horns,  which  often  spread  out  and  back  at  the  tips. 


Fig.  193. — A  Kerry  cow,  prominent  as  a  prize-winner  in  England, 
by  courtesy  Lady  Greenall  of  Walton  Hall,  England.) 


(Photo 


The  udder  is  plain  in  front,  but  is  usually  mellow  and  has 
medium-sized  teats.  These  cattle  have  not  been  officially 
tested,  but  in  various  herds  show  records  around  5,000  to 
6,000  pounds  for  the  better  cows.  The  milk  tests  about 
4  per  cent  fat.  In  temperament  these  cattle  are  somewhat 
nervous  and  active.  They  are  also  very  hardy.  Their  skin 
is  thick  and  heavily  coated  with.  hair. 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  KERRY  CATTLE. 

(Adopted  by  the  English  Kerry  and  Dexter  Cattle   Society.) 


Bull 

(leneral  formation  and  character 

Head,  horns  and  hair 

Quality    and   touch        

Color 


Points 


Total 


100 


Cow 


Points 
30 


General  formation  and  character,  head,  horns,  hair 
Udder:   Size,  shape,  situation  of  teats,  milk  veins,  es- 
cutcheon, etc .  . .  .      40 

Quality    and    touch        i 10 

Color  20 


Total    .  .      .,    100  . 

The  Dexter  breed  of  cattle  is  of  Irish  origin,  perhaps  an 
offshoot  from  the  Kerry.  This  is  the  smallest  breed  of 
British  origin,  the  bulls  at  maturity  often  weighing  600 
to  700  pounds,  and  the  cows  about  500  pounds.  Extreme 


Fig.  194. — Dexter  cow,  "Harley  Coy,"  a  noted  prize-winner  in  Ireland 
and  England. 


THE  MORE   IMPORTANT  DAIRY  BREED-,  347 

size  is  900  pounds  for  the  males  and  800  for  the  fonales. 
The  color  should  be  black  or  red,  with  no  white  u/aiess  a 
slight  amount  upon  the  udder,  scrotum,  or  brush  rf  tail. 
In  conformation  this  is  a  dual-purpose  breed  as  produced 
in  Europe,  and  a  special  class  is  provided  at  British  shows 
for  fat  steers  of  this  small  si/e,  where  very  choice  little 
carcasses  are  exhibited.  The  tendency  is  to  shortness,  thick- 
ness, and  depth  of  body.  The  typ,e  of  head  is  short,  and 
crowned  with  a  heavy  horn  of  upstanding  form.  The  cows 
often  have  large  udders  and  produce  excellent  yields  of 
about  4  per  cent  milk.  A  record  of  5,000  pounds  of  milk 
is  not  remarkable,  and  one  English  Dexter  is  reported  as 
producing  about  12,000  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  DEXTER  CATTLE. 

(Adopted  Ly  the   English  Kerry   and  Dt-xter  Cattle    Society.; 

Bull 

Points 

General  formation   and  character      LM 

Head,  horns  and  hair .....      25  •-* 

Quality  and  touch 1^0 

Color         30 

Total v  .   100 

Cow 

joints 

Head,  neck  and  horns '. 15 

.liody,  top  line,  underline,  ribs,  setting-on  of  tail,  short- 
ness of  leg,  etc 25 

Udder       40 

Quality  and  touch        10 

Color        10 

Total 100 

The  French  Canadian  breed  of  cattle  has  been  produced 
in  Quebec,  Canada,  for  perhaps  200  years.  It  is  a  dis- 
tinctly dairy  type  breed.  The  color  is  black  or  black-fawn, 
with  light  markings  about  the  muzzle  and  along  over  the 
spine.  This  is  one  of  the  small  breeds,  comparable  with  the 
small  type  Jersey.  The  form  is  quite  angular  and  notably 


348 


JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 


Fig.  195. — A  French-Canadian  cow.    First  prize  at  Virginia  State  Fair. 

spare  of  condition.  The  head  is  rather  plain,  with  moder- 
ate-sized, incurving  horns.  The  milk-producing  capacity 
of  the  cows  is  rated  at  about  5,000  pounds  as  a  standard. 
The  milk  tests  slightly  above  4  per  cent  fat.  The  skin  is 
mellow  and  is  notable  for  its  rich  yellow  color. 

The  Brown  Swiss  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  Switzer- 
land. It  has  been  officially  declared  a  dairy  type  by  the 
American  Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Association,  but  the  Swiss 
breeders  give  it  the  recognition  customarily  accorded  dual- 
purpose  cattle.  The  color  is  usually  a  dark  brown,  with 
mealy  or  creamy  coloring  of  hair  about  the  muzzle,  the 
udder,  inside  the  legs,  and  sometimes  along  over  the  back- 
bone. The  horns  have  very  dark  tips,  and  the  hoofs  are 
black.  The  tongue  and  flesh  at  nose  should  be  very  dark, 
approaching  black.  This  is  a  large  breed,  and  mature  bulls 
weigh  1,800  to  2,000  pounds,  and  cows  1,300  to  1,400  pounds. 
The  conformation  is  essentially  that  of  the  dual-purpose 


THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  DAIRY  BREEDS 


349 


type,  the  body  being  thick  all  through,  the  withers  and  back 
somewhat  wide,  and  the  thighs  fleshy.  Aside  from  color, 
some  of  the  more  characteristic  features  of  the  breed  are, 
a  somewhat  heavy  head,  a  deep  neck  with  an  unusual  prom- 
inence of  dewlap,  heavy  shoulders,  sloping  rump,  thick 
thighs,  and  heavy  joints  and  bone.  As  might  be  expected 
with  cattle  of  this  type  the  udder,  which  often  lacks  front 
extension,  is  of  but  moderate  size.  In  milk  production, 
Brown  Swiss  cattle  make  a  fair  showing,  and  5,000  to  6,000 
pounds  a  year  are  regarded  as  standard  yields.  The  aver- 
age of  134  cows  in  official  yearly  tests  in  the  United  States 
is  10,606Vo  pounds,  with  the  largest  yield,  19,461  pounds 
by  College  Bravura  2d.  Brown  Swiss  milk  is  of  standard 
quality,  testing  about  3.5  per  cent  fat.  The  average  annual 
butter  fat  production  of  the  134  cows  noted  above  was  425 
pounds.  Temperamentally,  cattle  of  this  breed  are  quiet 
and  easily  handled.  They  are  of  secondary,  rank  in  beef 
production. 


Fig.  196. — Brown  Swiss  cow,  "Kronkdale."  first  in  class  at  Lucerne, 
Switzerland,  1911. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

JUDGING  DUAL-PURPOSE  CATTLE. 

The  term  dual-purpose  cattle  is  to-day  understood  to  rep- 
resent a  type  that  will-  yield  well  of  both  beef  and  milk. 
It  is  a  comparatively  recent  application  as  a  substitute  for 
the  common  expression  long  in  use  of  " general  purpose." 
There  are  to-day  several  breeds  of  cattle  that  represent  the 
dual-purpose  type,  of  which  the  Red  Polled  and  Devon  are 
best  known  in  America.  There  are  also  what  are  known  as 
milking  or  dairy  Shorthorns,  that  are  commonly  regarded 
as  dual-purpose  cattle.  The  fact  is,  cattle  of  beef-producing 
character,  that  are  also  valued  for  dairy  purposes,  are  quite 
common  in  Europe,  -  Tlje  '&lgj£lft^  as 

^  ^miTk"  "producer  in  England, '  while  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  the  cattle  are  essentially  dual-purpose,  though  not 
always  known  as  such.  Dual-purpose  classification  and  pro- 
motion is  a  comparatively  recent  one  in  America,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  a  century  ago  Devon  cattle  were 
highly  regarded  in  New  England  for  the  several  pur- 
poses of  beef,  milk  and  labor. 

The  dual-purpose  idea  is  not  equally  clear  in  the  minds 
of  all  its  advocates.  One  of  the  most  noted  breeders  of 
milking  Shorthorns  in  England  informed  the  writer  that 
he  desired  as  beefy  a  cow  as  possible,  yet  with  highly  de- 
veloped udder  and  large  milking  capacity.  In  the  eastern 
United  States  the  milking  side  of  the  animal  is  emphasized, 
at  the  expense  of  flesh,  while  in  the  west  the  reverse  is  1  lie- 
case.  At  the  Pan-American  Exposition  at  Buffalo  in  1901, 
when  eastern  and  western  Devon  herds  met,  this  difference 
in  type  was  very  marked.  This  variation  has  been  seen 
repeatedly  in  the  case  of  Red  Polled  cattle  in  American 
show  rings,  in  which  wide  extremes  have  prevailed,  ranging 

350 


JUDGING  DUAL-PURPOSE  CATTLE 


351 


from  animals  of  decidedly  beefy  type  with  inferior  mam- 
mary development,  to  those  of  essentially  moderate  beef 
type,  with  strong  mammary  development.  From  a  scientific 
point  of  view,  based  on  the  law  of  correlation,  it  may  be 
argued  with  reason  that  flesh  is  produced  at  the  expense 
of  milk,  or  vice  versa.  Therefore,  to  be  a  true  dual-purpose 


Fig.  197. — "Lou  Waterloo,"  a  choice  example  of  a  milking  Shorthorn. 

cow,  there  should  be  a  production  of  both  flesh  and  milk 
up  to  at  least  a  certain  point,  the  beef  development  in  keep- 
ing with  beef  type,  and  the  udder  conformation  and  milk 
secretion,  comparable  with  that  in  a  resonably  good  cow 
of  dairy  type.  Gay  states  l  that  "it  is  perfectly  reason- 
able  to  expect  from  one  individual  the  production  of  milk 
to  the  extent  of  one-half  the  normal  in  dairy  cows,  and  the 
production  of  a  carcass  of  beef  at  least  50  per  cent  as 
valuable  and  one-half  as  economically  produced  as  in  the 

1  Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging  Live  Stock,  1914,  p.  214. 


352  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

case  of  a  typical  beef  steer.  This  is  all  that  should  be  at- 
tempted and  apparently  all  that  can  be  accomplished  in 
the  perfection  of  the  dual-purpose  cow. ' '  Special  advocates 
of  this  type  of  cattle,  however,  would  no  doubt  take  issue 
with  the  proposition  that  only  half  as  much  milk  should 
be  produced  as  is  normal  in  dairy  cows.  In  their  1907 
sale  catalog,  Innis  and  May,  breeders  of  milking  Shorthorns, 
state  that  * '  the  whole  herd  of  mature  cows,  six  years  old  or 
over,  have  made  average  yearly  milk  records  of  9,170.5 
pounds."  One  year  at  Tring  Park,  England,  54  milking 
Shorthorns  averaged  6,658  pounds  of  milk,  and  44  Red 
Polled  cows  averaged  6,174  pounds,  yields  considerably  in 
excess  of  50  per  cent  normal  production  in  dairy  cows. 
Dual-purpose  advocates  also  emphasize  the  value  of  the 
calf  for  veal  as  compared  with  progeny  from  dairy  cows. 
"Without  question,  superior  examples  of  dual-purpose  ani- 
mals in  type  and  ancestry,  will  return  yields,  either  in 
beef  or  milk,  on  better  than  a  50  per  cent  basis, -but  just 
how  much  better  is  not  known.  The  natural  tendency  of 
this  type  is  for  a  comparatively  short  period  of  lactation, 
this  being. followed  by  a  disposition  to  lay  on  flesh. 

The  dual-purpose  type,  as  generally  recognized,  repre- 
sents an  animal  of  modified  beef  form.  This  modification 
is  especially  seen  in  somewhat  more  length  and  thinness  of 
neck,  narrowness  of  withers,  extreme  length  of  body  from 
shoulders  to  hips,  and  lack  of  thickness  in  the  thighs. 
Either  males  or  females  seem  to  be  more  upstanding  and 
have  more  length  or  stretch,  than  in  case  of  the  true  beef  type. 
The  cow  should  carry  an  udder  fairly  representative  of  that 
of  the  dairy  type.  The  judge  must  keep  these  features  in  mind, 
in  passing  on  dual-purpose  cattle,  but  he  will  make  no  mis- 
take in  giving  preference  to  cows  of  distinct  beef  conforma- 
tion, provided  they  show  commendable  udder  development. 
In  1914,  at  the  show  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England  at  Shrewsbury,  in  the  milking  Shorthorn  class, 
consisting  of  40  cows,  first  and  second  places  were  awarded 
to  animals  that  were  more  of  beef  type  than  otherwise,  but 


JUDGING  DUAL-PURPOSE  CATTLE  353 

having  beautiful  large  udders.  These  same  cows  would  not 
have  looked  out  of  place  in  a  standard  Shorthorn  cow 
class,  yet  the  two  judges  regarded  them  as  the  best  dual- 
purpose  animals  in  the  ring,  and  their  judgment  met  very 
general  approval.  At  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposi- 
tion at  Chicago,  in  the  milking  Shorthorn  classes,  the  most 
successful  winning  cows  have  shown  considerable  size  and 
beefy  character,  and  yet  have  had  large  udders.  The  judge 
must  not  be  misled  to  favor  the  so-called  dual-purpose 
type,  where  dairy  conformation  and  lack  of  flesh  prevail. 
The  frame  should  be  smoothly  covered  with  flesh,  yet  not 
fat,  exemplifying  beef  type  and  its  possibilities.  The  ten- 
dency of  dual-purpose  bulls  is  to  be  too  short  and  compact. 
Some  of  the  finest  examples  of  this  type  of  bulls,  that  were 
notable  sires,  showed  great  length,  were  only  medium  thick 
of  withers  and  thighs,  and  had  somewhat  too  much  length 
of  leg. 

Scales  of  points  for  dual-purpose  type  cattle  may  be 
found  in  those  for  bulls  and  cows  adopted  in  1907  by  the 
Eed  Polled  Cattle  Club  of  America.  From  these  the  fol- 
lowing quotations  are  made,  in  order  to  set  forth  certain 
features  of  the  official  standards  relative  to  this  type: 

Cow. 

Points 

Head,  of  medium  length,  etc  6 

Neck,  of  medium  length,  clean  cut  and  straight  from  head  to  top  of 

shoulder,  with  inclination  to  arch  when  fattened,  and  often  showing 

folds  of  loose  skin  underneath  when  in  milking  form 3 

Shoulder,  of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid 6 

Chest,  broad  and  deep,  brisket  prominent 10 

Back  and  ribs:  back  medium  long,  moderately  wide,  spring  of  ribs 

starting  from  backbone  giving  a  rounding  appearance,  with  ribs  flat 

and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

Hips,  wide,  well  covered 3 

Quarters,  of  good  length,  thighs  wide,  roomy,  not  too  meaty 6 

Legs,  short,  straight  3 

Fore  udder,  full  and  flexible,  reaching  well  forward,  extending  down 

level  with  hind  udder 10 

Hind  udder,  full  and  well  up  behind 10 

Teats,  well  placed,  wide  apart,  and  of  reasonably  good  size 4 

Milk  veins,  of  medium  size,  full,  flexible,  extending  well  forward,  milk 

wells  of  medium  size 6 

General  description — Medium  wedge  form,  low  set,  top  and  bottom 

lines    straight    except    at    flank,    weight    1,300    to    1,500    Ibs.    when 

mature. 


354  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

Bull. 

Points 

Head,  wide,  strong  and  masculine,  relatively  short,  etc 12 

Neck,  of  medium  length,  full  crest,  of  good  thickness 5 

Shoulder,  of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid  .  .  .  .  8 

Chest,  broad  and  deep,  brisket  prominent 12 

Back  and  ribs:  back,  medium  long,  with  spring  of  ribs  from  backbone 

giving  rounding  appearance,  with  ribs  flat  and  fairly  wide  apart  .  .  14 

Hips,  wide,  well  covered  3 

Quarters  of  good  length,  thighs  wide  and  moderately  full,  deep  . .  . .  C 

Legs,  short,  straight  .  .  .  .  3 

Rudimentaries,  large,  wide  apart  and  placed  well  forward 12 

Position  of  rudimentaries 6 

General  Description — Strong,  impressive,  low  set  and  of  good  carriage, 

weight  1,800  to  2,000  Ibs.,  when  mature  arid  finished. 

Special  features  of  these  scales  of  points  that  apply  to 
the  dual-purpose  type,  are  the  emphasis  on  the  word 
" medium"  as  applied  to  length  and  thickness  of  various 
parts,  the  character  of  back  and  ribs,  and  the  large  number 
of  points  credited  to  mammary  development.  The  judge 
should  note  especially  that  the  scale  of  points  for  the  cow 
contains  nearly  as  many  points  credited  to  the  udder,  etc., 
as  is  recognized  in  some  of  the  official  dairy  cattle  score 
cards — a  rather  striking  evidence  of  recognition  of  milk 
production  in  this  type. 

In  judging  cattle  of  the  dual-purpose  type,  it  is  highly 
important  to  keep  the  essentials  of  conformation  well  in 
mind,  and  assign  animals  to  their  places  according  to  the 
way  they  measure  up  to  the  more  or  less  elastic  standards 
of  this  class. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

DESCRIPTIVE  NOTES  ON  DUAL-PURPOSE  BREEDS 
OF  CATTLE. 

The  Red  Polled  breed  of  cattle  comes  from  the  counties 
of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  in  eastern  England.  It  is  a  true 
dual-purpose  type,  and  is  advocated  as  such  by  its  breeders. 
However,  we  find  great  extremes  within  the  breed,  ranging 
from  those  of  dairy  to  a  distinct  beef  type.  This  condition 
applies  equally  in  England  and  America.  The  color  is  a 
pure  red,  varying  from  light  to  dark,  a  medium  shade 
being  most  common.  The  size  of  mature  Red  Polled  cattle 
is  about  medium,  bulls  ranging  from  1,800  to  2,000  pounds, 
and  cows  from  1,250  to  1,300  pounds..  The  general  con- 
formation is  dual-purpose,  as  described  under  that  type. 
Red  Polled  cattle  are  frequently  somewhat  upstanding. 


Fig.  198. — Red  Polled  cow,  "Jean  DuLuth  Pear,"  the  first  cow  of  the? 
breed  to  produce  over  600  Ibs.  of  fat  in  a  year.  (Photo  by  courtesy 
Jean  DuLuth  Farm.)  - 

355 


356  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

The  head  inclines  to  some  straightness  of  face,  and  is  polled. 
The  shoulders  tend  to  be  prominent,  the  withers  are  only 
moderately  broad,  and  the  udder  is  often  very  poor  in 
front  development,  with  large  teats.  In  milk  production, 
cows  of  this  breed  have  made  excellent  records,  5,000  to 
6,000  pounds  being  a  fair  standard.  The  best  record  made 
by  a  cow  of  this  breed  is  that  of  Jean  DuLuth  Beauty  31725, 
that  for  the  year  ending  January  11,  1916  produced  20,- 
280.6  pounds  of  milk.  The  quality  of  Eed  Polled  milk  is 
about  standard,  testing  about  3.75  per  cent  fat.  Jean 
DuLuth  Beauty  produced  891.58  pounds  of  fat  in  her  365- 
day  test.  Cattle  of  this  breed  are  somewhat  more  nervous 
of  temperament  than  are  Shorthorns  or  our  more  common 
breeds. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  RED  POLLED  CATTLE. 

(Adopted  by   the  Red  Polled   Cattle   Club   of   America.) 

Cow. 

Points 

Disqualifications — 'Scurs,  or  any  evidence  whatever  of  a  horny  growth  on 
the  head.  Any  white  spots  on  body  above  lower  line  or  brush  of  tail. 

Color — Any  shade  of  red.     The  switch  of  tail  and  udder  may  be  white 
with    some  white   running   forward    to   the   naval.      Nose    of   a   clear 
flesh   color.      Interior  of  ears   should  be  of  a  yellowish,   waxy  color        2 
Objections:  An  extreme  dark  or  an  extreme  light  red  is  not  desirable. 
A  cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark  spots. 

Head — Of  medium  length,  wide  between  the  eyes,  sloping  gradually  from 
above  eyes  to  poll,  The  poll  well  denned  and  prominent,  with  a 
sharp  dip  behind  it  in  center  of  head.  Ears  of  medium  size  and 
well  carried.  Eyes  prominent;  face  well  dished  between  the  eyes. 

Muzzle  wide,   with   large  nostrils 6 

Objections:  A  roundness  or  flat  appearance  of  the  pott.     Head  too  long 
and  narrow. 

Neck — Of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  and  straight  from  head  to  top  of 
shoulder,  with  inclination  to  arch  when  fattened,  and  may  show  folds 
of  loose  skin  underneath  when  in  milking  form 3 

Shoulder — Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid,  coming  up  level  with 

line  of  back 6 

Objections:   Shoulder  too  prominent,  giving  the  appearance  of  weak- 
ness in  heart  girth,  shoulder  protruding  above  line  of  back. 

Chest — Broad   and   deep,    insuring   constitution.      Brisket   prominent    and 

coming  well   forward 10 

Back  and  ribs — Back  medium  long,  straight  and  level  from  withers  to 
setting-on  of  tail,  moderately  wide,  with  spring  of  ribs  starting  from 
the  backbone,  giving  a  rounding  appearance,  with  ribs  flat  and  fairly 

wide   apart 14 

Objections:  Front  ribs  too  straight,  causing  depression  back  of  shoul- 
ders.    Drop  in  back  or  loin  below  the  top  line. 


DUAL-PURPOSE   BREEDS   OF   CATTLE  357 

Points 

Hips — Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well  covered 3 

Quarters — Of  good  length,  full,  rounding  and  level;    thighs  wide,   roomy 

and    not    too    meaty         6 

Objections:  Prominent  hooks  and  sunken  quarters. 
Tail — Tail   head    strong   and   setting   well   forward,   long   and   tapering   to 

a    full    switch  2 

Legs — Short,    straight,   squarely  placed,   medium  bone 3 

Objections:  Hocks  crooked;  legs  placed  too  close  together. 
Fore  udder — Full,  flexible,  reaching  well   forward,   extending  down  level 

with  hind  udder 10 

Hind  udder — Full  and  well  up  behind        10 

Teats — Well  placed,  wide  apart  and  of  reasonably  good  size        4 

Objections:  Lack  of  development,  especially  in  forward  udder.     Udder 
too  deep,  "bottle -shaped,"  and  teats  too  close  together.     Teats  un- 
evenly placed  and  either  too  large  or  too  small. 
Milk  veins — Of  medium  size,  full,  flexible,   extending  well  forward,  well 

retained  within  the  body;   milk  wells  of  medium  size      6 

Hide — Loose,  mellow,  flexible,  inclined  to  thickness,  with  a  good  full  coat 

of  soft  hair      .  .  5 

Objections:   Thin,  papery  skin  or  wiry  hair. 
Condition — Healthy,    moderate    to    liberal    flesh,    evenly    laid    on;    glossy 

coat;  animal  presented  in  full  bloom 10 

Total 100 

Bull. 

Note — In  the  standard  for  the  bull,  the  description  applied  to  color,  chest, 
back  and  ribs,  hips,  tail,  legs,  hide  and  condition,  and  disqualifications,  are 
the  same  as  those  for  the  cow,  and  the  same  points  are  accorded  in  each 
case,  excepting  the  chest,  where  12  are  given  the  bull  instead  of  10.  All 
other  descriptions  differ  from  those  applied  to  the  cow,  and  so  are  herewith 
specified. 

Points 

Head — Wide,  strong  and  masculine,  relatively  short.     Poll  stronger  and 
less  prominent  than  in  a  cow.     Ears  of  medium  size  and  well  carried; 

eyes  prominent ;   muzzle  wide  with  large  nostrils 12 

Objections:  Long,  narrow  or  lacking  in  masculine  character. 
Neck — Of  medium  length,   full  crest,   of  good  thickness,   strong,   of  mas- 
culine appearance        5 

Shoulder— -Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid,  coming  up  level  with 

line  of  back  • ,. ,       .  .       . 8 

Objections:  Shoulder  too  prominent,  giving  the  appearance  of  weakness 

in  heart  girth,  shoulder  protruding  above  line  of  back. 

Quarters — Of  good  length,  full  rounding  and  level;  thighs  wide  and  mod- 
erately  full,    deep 6 

Objections:  Prominent  hocks  and  sunken  quarters. 

Kudimentaries — Large,  wide  apart  and  placed  well  forward      12 

Position   of  rudimentaries 6 

Objections:  Rudimentaries  placed  back  on  scrotum,  or  placed  too  close 

together,  indicating  tendency  to  transmit  badly  formed  udders. 
General   Description — Strong,    impressive,    low   set,    and   of  good    carriage. 
Weight    1,800   pounds   to  2,000    pounds   when   mature   and   finished. 

The  Devon  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  Devonshire,  in 
southwest  England,  and  is  a  very  ancient  one.  There  are 


358  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

two  types,  those  of  North  Devon,  favoring  beef  form,  and 
those  of  south  Devon,  with  greater  tendency  to  milk  pro- 
duction. This  breed,  at  one  time  prominent  in  America, 
has  nearly  disappeared,  being  rarely  seen  or  heard  from. 
The  color  is  red,  ranging  from  light  to  dark.  The  size  may 
be  regarded  as  medium,  though  in  America  the  opinion 
has  prevailed  that  Devons  lack  in  size.  Standard  weights 


Tig.  199. — Devon  cow,  "Nettle  Top,"  grand  champion  at  Lewis  and  Clark 

Exposition. 

are  1,500  to  2,000  pounds  for  mature  males,  and  1,200  to 
1,300  for  cows.  The  very  distinctive  features  of  the  Devon 
are  a  lean,  shapely  head,  crowned  with  a  slender,  rather 
long,  graceful,  upturned  horn  of  waxy  color,  and  dark 
tipped.  The  body  is  of  blocky  form,  and  the  limbs  are  usu- 
ally slender  and  show  much  quality.  In  milk  production, 
cows  of  dairy  or  dual-purpose  type  produce  fair  yields, 


DUAL-PURPOSE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE      359 

but  those  of  beef  type  make  poor  records.  The  milk  tests 
about  4.y2  Per  cent  fat,  and  is  rated  of  excellent  quality. 
This  is  a  very  active  breed,  and  has  been  highly  regarded 
in  times  past  in  the  eastern  United  States  for  oxen. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOE  DEVON  CATTLE. 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Devon  Cattle  Club.) 
Bull. 

Points 

Head — Masculine,  full  and  broad,  tapering  toward  the  nose,  which 
should  be  flesh  colored;  nostrils  high  and  open,  muzzle  broad;  eyes 
full  and  placid  and  surrounded  with  flesh-colored  ring;  ears  of  medium 
size  and  thickness;  horns  medium  size,  growing  at  right  angles  from 
the  head,  or  slightly  elevated,  waxy  at  the  base,  tipped  with  a  darker 

shade  10 

Cheeks — Full  and  broad  at  root  of  tongue ;  throat  clean 2 

Neck — Of  medium  length  and  muscular,  widening  from  the  head  to  the 

shoulders  and   strongly   set   on 4 

Shoulders — Fine,  flat,   sloping,  and  well  fleshed ;    arms  strong,  with  firm 

joints         6 

Chest — Deep,   broad,    and  somewhat    circular 10 

Ribs — Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  nicely  arched,  deep,  with  flanks 

fully  developed 10 

Back — Straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail; 
loin  broad  and  full;  hips  and  rump  of  medium  width  and  on  a  level 

with    the    back         20 

Hindquarters — Deep,  thick  and  square        12 

Tail — Well  set  on  at  a  right  angle  with  the  back,  tapering,  with  a  switch 

of  white  or  roan  hair  and  reaching  the  hocks 2 

Legs — Short,  straight  and  squarely  placed  when  viewed  from  behind,  not 

to  cross  or  sweep  in  walking;  hoof  well  formed 4 

Skin — Moderately  thick  and  mellow,  covered  with  an  abundant  coat  of 
rich  hair  of  red  color;  no  white  spot  admissible,  unless  around  the 

purse          8 

Size — Minimum  weight  at  three,  years  of  age  1,400  pounds      4 

General  Appearance — As  indicated  by  stylish  and  quick  movement,  form, 
constitution,  and  vigor,  and  the  underline  as  nearly  as  possible 
parallel  with  the  line  of  the  back 8 

Total 100 

Cow. 

Head — Moderately  long,  with  a  broad  indented  forehead,  tapering  con- 
siderably toward  the  nostrils;  the  nose  of  a  flesh  color,  nostrils 
high  and  open;  the  jaws  clean;  the  eyes  bright,  lively  and  prominent 
and  surrounded  by  a  flesh-colored  ring;  throat  clean;  ears  thin;  the 
expression  gentle  and  intelligent;  horns  matching,  spreading,  and 
gracefully  turned  up,  of  a  waxy  color,  tipped  with  a  darker  shade  8 

Neck — Upper  line  short,  fine  at  head,  widening  and  deep  at  withers  and 

strongly  set  to  the  shoulders 4 

Shoulder — Fine,  flat  and  sloping,  with  strong  arms  and  firm  joints   .  .       .  .        4 

Ohest — Deep,    broad,    and   somewhat   circular   in   character g 


360  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

Points 
Bibs — Well  sprung  from  the  back  bone,  nicely  arched,  deep,  with  flanks 

fully  developed  8 

Back — Straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail; 

loin   broad   and   full;    hips   and   rump   of    medium   width,    and   on  a 

level  with  the  back 16 

Hindquarters — Deep,  thick  and  square  8 

Udder — Not  fleshy,  coming  well  forward  in  line  with  the  belly  and  well 

up  behind;  teats  moderately  large,  and  squarely  placed 20 

Tail — Well  set  on  at  right  angle  with  back,  tapering,  with  a  switch  of 

white  or  roan  hair,  and  reaching  the  hocks  .  .  2 

Legs — Straight,  squarely  placed  when  viewed  from  behind,  not  to  cross 

or  sweep  in  walking;  hoof  well  formed 4 

Skin — Moderately  thick  and  mellow,  covered  with  an  abundant  coat  of 

rich  hair  of  red  color;  no  white  spot  admissible,  except  the  udder  8 

Size — Minimum  weight  at  three  years  of  age  1,000  pounds  2 

General  appearance — As  indicated  by  stylish  and  quick  movement,  form, 

constitution  and  vigor,  and  the  underline  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel 

with  the  line  of  the  back 8 

Total..  .    100 


PART  IV— JUDGING  SHEEP. 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

THE  ANATOMY  OP  THE  SHEEP. 

A  study  of  the  anatomy  of  the  sheep,  and  that  of  the  ox, 
shows  a  close  resemblance  between  them.  In  the  size  and 
skin  covering  are  the  most  marked  differences,  otherwise 
these  two  great  classes  of  animals  have  much  in  common. 
Lydekker  states  1  that  the  features  by  which  sheep  are  dis- 
'tinguished  from  oxen  or  cattle  are  as  follows:  "In  the  first 
place,  sheep  as  a  whole  are  smaller  animals  than  oxen,  al- 
though the  largest  sheep,  such  as  the  Central  Asian  Argali, 
is  considerably  bigger  than  the  anoa  or  dwarf  buffalo  of 
Celebes,  the  smallest  member  of  the  ox  group.  Then,  again, 
they  usually  carry  their  heads  higher,  and  considerably 
elevated  above  the  line  of  the  back.  In  place,  too,  of  the 
broad,  naked,  moist,  undivided  muzzle  of  the  oxen,  sheep 
have  a  vertically  cleft,  narrow  snout  completely  covered 
with  short  hair,  except  on  the  margins  of  the  nostrils  and 
lips.  Very  generally  there  is  a  small  sub-orbital  face  gland, 
situated  in  a  shallow  depression  in  the  lachrymal  bone  of  the 
skull,  and  frequently  known  as  the  tear-gland  or  larmier. 
Sheep  also  differ  from  living  oxen  in  that  when  horns 
are  developed  in  the  females,  as  is  usually  the  case  among 
the  wild  species,  they  are  very  much  smaller  than  those 
of  the  males,  from  which  they  generally  also  differ  consider- 
ably in  shape. " 

The  skeleton  of  the  sheep,  notwithstanding  its  resem- 
blance to  that  of  the  ox,  has  certain  interesting  features. 
Considerable  variation  exists  in  the  number  of  bones  in  the 

1  The  Sheep  and  Its  Cousins,  1912,  p.  12. 

361 


362  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

spines  of  different  races  of  sheep.  According  to  Sissoii 2 
there  are  commonly  seven  cervical  vertebrae,  thirteen  tho- 
racic and  six  lumbar  vertebrae.  The  sacrum  usually  consists 
of  four  parts,  and  the  bones  in  the  coccyx,  at  the  end  of 
the  spinal  column,  vary  from  three,  in  short-tailed  sheep, 
to  twenty-four  or  more.  There  are  usually  thirteen  pairs 
of  ribs,  but  fourteen  are  not  uncommon.  The  ribs  are  nar- 
rower, and  the  front  ones  are  more  strongly  curved,  than 
is  the  case  with  the  ox.  The  skulls  of  sheep  and  ox  are 
quite  similar,  but  the  former  is  more  pointed  at  each  end, 
with  the  frontal  bones  at  the  eye  rather  prominent.  It  is 
this  small  size  of  the  end  of  the  skull,  at  the  muzzle,  that 
enables  the  sheep  to  graze  so  close  to  the  ground.  Lydekker 
states3  that,  "the  skulls  of  tame  sheep  differ  from  those 
of  their  wild  relatives — when  specimens  with  the  same  ap* 
proximate  basal  length  are  compared — by  the  smaller  di- 
ameter of  the  socket  of  the  eye,  the  abortion  of  the  auditory 
bulla  4  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  the  much  smaller  ca- 
pacity of  the  brain  chamber.  It  has  been  shown,  for 
instance,  that  whereas  in  the  wild  mouflon  the  brain  capac- 
ity ranges  from  130  to  170  cubic  centimeters,  with  a  mean 
of  140  cubic  centimeters,  in  domesticated  sheep,  having 
skulls  of  the  same  average  size,  the  mean  brain  capacity  is 
only  from  110  to  120  cubic  centimeters.  These  differences  are 
due,  of  course,  to  the  more  or  less  protected  conditions  under 
which  domesticated  sheep  pass  their  existence,  thereby  re- 
ducing the  need  of  acuteness  in  the  senses  of  hearing,  sight 
and  smell."  The  humerus  or  large  bone  of  the  arm  is 
relatively  longer  and  more  slender  than  it  is  with  the  ox, 
and  the  same  applies  to  the  bones  of  the  forearm.  The 
ischium,  or  what  is  often  called  the  pin  bone,  at  the  end  of 
the  pelvis  on  each  side  of  the  tail,  according  to  Sisson,5 
slopes  downward  and  backward,  and  forms  a  much  larger 
angle  than  in  the  case  of  the  ox.  This  may  account  in  part 

2  The  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals,  1914,  p.  156. 

3  Sheep  and  Its  Cousins,  p.  21. 

*  A  prominence  below  the  opening  of  the  ear  in  the  skull  of  many  animal 
6  Ibid.,  p.  160. 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP         363 

for  the  droopy  rump  so  often  seen  in  Merino  sheep.  The 
floor  of  the  pelvic  cavity  is  wider  and  shallower  in  compari- 
son with  the  ox.  The  long  bones  of  the  hind  legs,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  front  legs,  are  relatively  slender  for  their 
length. 

The  teeth  of  the  sheep  are  found  in  the  back  part  of  the 
upper  and  lower  jaws,  and  in  the  front  part  of  the  lower 
jaw.  The  front  part  of  the  upper  jaw  consists  of  a  tough 
fibrous  pad,  against  which  the  lower  front  teeth,  the  incisors, 
press,  when  the  sheep  is  grazing.  When  the  lamb  is  born, 
usually  there  is  a  pair  of  small  teeth  in  the  center  of  the  front 
of  the  lower  jaw.  Very  shortly  two  more  appear,  in  two 
weeks  after  birth  two  more  come  in,  and  by  the  time  the  lamb 
is  three  or  four  weeks  old  there  are  eight  small  milk  or 
deciduous  teeth  in  position.  Twelve  small  molar  teeth  also 
appear.  When  a  sheep  has  come  into  maturity,  at  two  years, 
it  has  thirty-two  permanent  teeth,  consisting  of  twenty-four 
molars,  12  in  each  jaw,  and  eight  incisors. 

The  age  of  a  sheep  may  be  determined  up  to  a  certain 
extent,  by  means  of  the  number  and  character  of  the  teeth. 
It  is  an  easy  matter  to  examine  the  teeth  of  the  sheep,  re- 
quiring skill  and  quiet  patience,  rather  than  force.  The 
method  is  as  follows:  One  hand  should  be  placed  over  the 
back  of  the  head,  thereby  holding  and  steadying  it,  while 
the  end  of  the  jaw  of  the  sheep  should  rest  in  the  upturned 
palm  of  the  other  hand.  Then  the  lips  may  be  gently  parted 
with  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  showing  the  incisor  teeth. 
If  this  is  done  quietly  the  sheep  will  struggle  but  little,  but 
if  much  force  is  exercised  by  finger  and  thumb,  the  sheep 
will  be  likely  to  resist  stoutly.  When  the  lamb  is  about 
twelve  months  old,  two  teeth  appear  in  the  front  jaw  and 
force  out  the  central  pair  of  milk  teeth.  These  are  large, 
prominent  incisors,  with  broad  crowns,  and  are  known  as 
yearling  teeth.  The  appearance  of  the  permanent  teeth  is  in- 
fluenced more  or  less  by  breed  inheritance  and  by  the  condi- 
tions under  which  the  animals  have  been  kept  as  lambs.  When 
lambs  are  fed  for  show,  and  are  kept  in  high  condition,  the 


364 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


permanent  teeth  are  hastened  in  development.  To  the 
contrary,  neglect  or  starvation,  retards  development.  One 
well-known  handler  of  sheep,  Mr.  Frank  Kleinheinz,  states 6 
that  he  has  seen  rare  cases  where  sheep  did  not  change  the 
first  pair  of  teeth  until  they  were  eighteen  and  in  one  case 
nineteen  months  old.  In  this  instance,  shortly  after  the 
first  change  oc- 
curred, the  second 
took  place,  yet  long 
before  the  sheep 
was  two  years  old. 
"When  the  .sheep  is 
about  twenty-four 
months  old,  two 
more  large  incisors 
appear,  one  on 
each  side  of  the 
yearling  teeth, 
pushing  out  the 
two  milk  teeth  in 
the  way.  The  pres- 
ence of  four  large 
incisors  and  four 
small  ones,  indi- 
cates that  the  sheep 
is  a  two-year  old. 
At  about  thirty- 
six  months  of  age, 
two  more  large  in- 
cisors appear,  one 

on  each  side  of  the  second  permanent  pair,  indicating 
the  animal  to  be  a  three-year  old.  Finally,  at  about 
forty-eight  months  of  age,  the  last  pair  appears,  all  the 
milk  teeth  have  been  shed,  and  eight  strong  incisors  indicate 
the  sheep  to  be  four  years  of  age.  The  central  teeth  are 
always  somewhat  the  largest,  and  as  they  are  the  oldest, 

6  Sheep  Management,  1911,  p.  29. 


Fig.  200. — "Then  the  lips  may  be  gently 
parted  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  showing 
the  incisor  teeth." 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP         365 

we  find  that  it  is  at  this  point  that  the  crowns  wear  down  with 
age  and  first  break  away.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  the 
age  of  a  sheep  with  certainty  after  it  has  obtained  a  full 
mouth  of  teeth.  Two  things,  however,  serve  as  a  guide,  one 
the  wearing  away  of  the  incisors  from  the  center  toward  the 
outside  pair,  and  the  other  the  grinding  down  and  wearing 
off  the  crowns  of  the  teeth,  until  with  some  old  sheep  one 
finds  only  short  stumps  left  in  the  lower  jaw.  With  increase 
of  years,  the  front  teeth  also  gradually  incline,  losing  much 
of  their  original  erect  position.  Experienced  buyers  of 
sheep,  whenever  necessary  " mouth,"  that  is  examine  the 
teeth  of  animals  purchased,  to  be  sure  that  the  teeth  are 
in  good  order,  instead  of  broken  or  missing. 

The  digestive  organs  of  the  sheep,  excepting  for  size 
and  capacity,  are  essentially  like  those  of  the  ox.  The 
stomach  is  compound,  consisting  of  four  parts,  the  rumen 
or  paunch,  the  reticulum  or  honeycomb,  the  manyplies  and 
the  abomasum.  The  four  stomachs  of  the  sheep  will  hold 
about  thirty-one  quarts,  of  which  the  paunch  holds  about 
twenty-five,  while  the  manyplies  holds  the  least,  or  only 
about  one  quart.  The  small  intestines  are  about  eighty-six 
feet  long,  and  the  large  ones  about  twenty-one  feet  long, 
and  hold  respectively  nine  and  one-half  quarts  and  six 
quarts  each.  In  connection  with  the  digestive  operations 
of  the  sheep,  it  is  important  to  note  that  this  animal  com- 
pletely reduces  all  seeds  and  other  food  to  a  common  mass 
of  solid  excrement.  No  other  domestic  animal  so  thoroughly 
disintegrates  the  food.  Seed  may  pass  through  the  diges- 
tive tract  of  cattle,  and  germinate  afterward,  but  not  so 
with  seeds  passing  through  sheep ;  they  are  completely  des- 
troyed. This  explains  in  part  why  sheep  are  so  valuable  in 
ridding  land  of  weeds. 

The  organs  of  reproduction  of  the  sheep  are  similar  to 
those  of  cattle,  but  on  a  comparatively  smaller  scale.  The 
ram  as  he  attains  yearling  form,  should  show  a  strong  scro- 
tum or  sac  containing  two  equal-sized,  clearly  defined 
glands.  The  scrotum  should  not  be  either  small  and  held 


366  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

close  to  the  body,  or  long  and  heavy,  nearly  touching  the 
ground,  as  sometimes  occurs,  but  should  be  of  medium  size, 
lean  and  well  defined.  The  udder  of  the  female  lies  closely 
in  front  of  the  thighs,  and  consists  of  two  glands,  and  two 
teats.  It  is  important  that  the  udder  be  well  supported 
from  above,  the  glands  of  equal  size,  and  the  teats  not  too 
large  and  in  perfect  condition.  The  female  sheep,  the  ewe, 
usually  bears  one  young,  frequently  she  has  twins,  and 
cases  are  on  record  of  ewes  having  five  lambs  at  one  birth. 
This  feature  of  reproduction  largely  depends  upon  breed 
and  race,  some  breeds  being  much  more  fecund  than  others. 

The  skin  of  the  domestic  sheep  is  ordinarily  covered  with 
wool,  and  is  not  to  be  seen  excepting  about  the  nose,  ears, 
armpits  and  udder.  Below  the  surface  of  wool  it  is  more 
or  less  pink  and  delicate.  The  skin,  however,  differs  some- 
what in  color,  ranging  from  bright  pink  to  a  light  bluish 
shade,  with  various  tints  between.  Small  oil  secreting 
glands  occur  in  the  skin,  assisting  in  keeping  it  in  healthy 
condition,  and  also  supplying  oil  for  the  wool.  This  oil 
differs  from  other  animal  fats,  in  containing  a  large  per- 
centage of  potash,  which  makes  it  easily  dissolvable  in 
water.  Thus  it  was  in  early  days  that  the  shepherd  washed 
his  sheep  in  the  running  water  of  the  brook,  the  mixture 
of  oil  and  dirt  being  more  or  less  washed  off,  according  to 
the  thoroughness  of  the  washing. 

The  fleece  or  wool  of  the  sheep  consists  of  fibers  that  are 
closely  related  to  hair  in  structure.  Each  of  these  grows  in 
the  skin  from  a  tubular  cavity  called  a  hair  bulb.  The  wool 
fiber  consists  of  a  hollow  or  cored  center,  surrounded  by  a 
hard  cellular  wall,  on  the  exterior  of  which  are  a  great  num- 
ber of  little  scales,  which  overlap  each  other  like  shingles  on 
the  roof  of  a  house,  forming  the  outside  of  the  fiber.  These 
scales  have  enough  prominence  at  their  ends,  to  catch  and 
interlock  with  those  on  adjoining  fibers,  thus  forming  a 
felting  process,  which  gives  the  great  value  to  wool  in  cloth 
making.  The  scales  011  hair,  however,  are  so  small  and  so 
closely  attached  to  the  surface  of  the  fiber,  that  felting  is 


TIIK    ANATOMY  OF   THE   SIIKKP  ;}(>7 

difficult.  Cotted  wool,  where  the  fibers  of  the  fleece  on  the 
sheep  are  closely  fastened  together  so  that  they  can  be 
separated  only  with  great  difficulty,  is  an  example  of 
natural  felting  or  interlocking  of  scales,  usually  due  to 
sickness  and  a  lack  of  oil  in  the  fleece.  The  fleece  of  sheep 
on  certain  limestone  lands,  especially  the  Highlands  of 
England  and  Scotland,  is  frequently  cotted.  The  scales 
vary  some  in  size  and  shape,  the  Merino  having  the  smallest 
and  the  long  wooled  breeds  the  largest.  The  scales  are  easily 
seen  under  a  microscope,  and  especially  so  if  the  fiber  is 
treated  two  or  three  minutes  with  a  weak  solution  of  caustic 
potash.  The  scales  in  more  or  less  degree  reflect  light  when 
exposed,  giving  a  special  lustre,  that  on  the  large  breeds-, 
such  as  the  Cotswold,  is  highly  valued.  Scales  that  have  a 
high  lustre,  give  very  choice  results  from  the  most  delicate 
dyeing  operations.  In  the  tropics  wool  is  least  developed  on 
the  sheep,  while  in  temperate  or  cold  regions,  the  body  is 
most  completely  covered  by  the  wool.  Naturally,  under 
conditions  of  domestication,  wool  production  has  reached  a 
high  degree  of  development,  sheep  of  the  Merino  family 
producing  it  to  the  extreme.  Cases  are  on  record  of  Merino 
fleeces  weighing  one-third  of  the  total  body  weight,  and 
single  fleeces  weighing  over  40  pounds  for  a  year's  growth 
have  been  removed.  There  is  much  difference  in  the  wool 
fiber,  ranging  from  that  which  is  comparatively  coarse  and 
straight,  to  that  which  is  very  fine  and  considerably  crimped 
or  serrated.  As  a  rule,  the  thicker  the  wool  fibers  over  a 
given  skin  surface,  the  finer  it  will  be  in  quality.  Sheep  or- 
dinarily are  free  of  wool  about  the  face,  ears,  armpits,  udder 
and  legs.  Exception  to  this,  however,  occurs  in  the  case  of 
certain  breeds,  as  for  example  the  Merino  and  Shropshire, 
where  the  face,  ears  and  legs  are  more  or  less  wooled. 

The  foot  glands  of  the  sheep  are  a  feature  peculiar  to  this 
class  of  domestic  animals.  A  small  opening  or  hole,  at  the 
point  in  front  of  the  foot,  where  the  toes  begin  to  separate, 
leads  into  a  narrow  duct,  which  expands  into  a  gland.  This 
gland  occupies  space  between  the  bones  just  above  the  heel, 


368  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

and  secretes  a  clear  semi-fluid  substance.  R.  I.  Pocock 
states  7  that  secretion  with  Asiatic  wild  sheep  is  pleasant 
of  scent,  like  taffy,  slightly  infused  with  acetic  acid. 
Lydekker  assumes 8  that  the  secretion  of  these  foot  glands, 
by  scenting  the  ground  or  herbage  over  which  the  sheep 
have  passed,  aids,  doubtless,  in  enabling  the  members  of  a 
scattered  flock  to  ascertain  the  whereabouts  of  their  fellows. 
The  unpleasant  smell  of  domesticated  sheep,  so  different 
from  the  sweet  aroma  of  cattle  and  many  kinds  of  antelopes, 
may  be  in  part  due  to  the  secretion  of  these  glands. 

7  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.    London,  1910,  p.  859. 

8  The  Sheep  and  Its  Cousins,  1912,  p.  19. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

HOW  TO  HANDLE  AND  EXAMINE  SHEEP. 

IN  view  of  the  fact  that  the  sheep  has  a  covering  of  wool 
over  its  body  most  of  the  time,  it  is  necessary  that  this 
animal  be  examined  by  a  different  method  from  that  used 
with  other  farm  stock.  Furthermore,  because  the  sheep  is 
naturally  rather  timid,  it  must  be  held  and  handled  in  a 
way  that  will  cause  as  little  fear  and  resistance  on  its  part 
as  possible. 

To  catch  and  hold  a  sheep  properly  for  examination, 
approach  it  as  quietly  as  possible,  so  as  to  cause  no  fright, 
and  grasp  the  right  hind  leg  with  the  hand  high  up  near 
the  flank.  Then  move  quickly  along  the  left  side  of  the 
sheep,  holding  the  right  hand  so  as  to  be  able  to  press  the 
animal  against  you,  at  the  same  time  slipping  the  left  hand 
beneath  the  jaw  or  neck,  with  the  fingers  extended  to  fur- 
nish a  close  hold  at  one  of  these  parts.  With  the  sheep  at 
rest,  in  position  for  examination,  one  should  hold  the  lower 
jaw  or  neck  with  the  left  hand,  and  control  the  rear  part 
by  the  use  of  the  right  hand  laid  quietly  at  some  point  near 
the  right  side,  far  back,  near  hip  or  rump.  Thus  one  may 
hold  a  sheep  with  least  exertion  and  under  best  control. 
Ordinarily,  also,  one  may  simply  hold  the  sheep  at  the  head, 
placing  the  left  hand  under  the  jaw  and  the  right  hand  on 
the  back  of  the  head.  The  hand  should  never  grasp  the 
wool,  for  nothing  causes  a  sheep  to  struggle  more  than  pull- 
ing the  wool.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  see  men  seize 
the  wool  at  the  back  or  neck  and  begin  to  struggle  with  the 
sheep,  a  method  that  succeeds  admirably  in  frightening  the 
animal  and  causing  unnecessary  trouble.  Sheep  that  have 
never  been  handled  will  resist  much  more  than  those  that 

309 


370 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


are  used  to  handling.  Sheep  of  some  breeds  also,  especially 
of  the  mountain  sorts,  naturally  resist  handling  more  than 
do  the  larger,  more  phlegmatic  lowland  breeds.  It  may 
also  be  noted  here  that  some  men  are  naturally  much  better 
adapted  to  hold  and  handle  sheep  than  are  others.  With  them 
the  sheep  seem  quiet  and  unfrightened.  It  is  through 

gentleness  and 
quiet  manners  that 
such  men  succeed 
so  well.  The  writer 
has  been  interested 
to  note  that,  in  both 
Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, shepherds  of 
experience  are  most 
quiet  and  gentle 
in  dealing  with 
their  sheep,  and 
have  little  difficul- 
ty in  doing  with 
them  as  they  wish. 
Persons  holding 
sheep  for  examina- 
tion, should  make 
themselves  as  in- 
conspicuous as  possible.  For  that  reason,  if  the  time  occu- 
pied is  not  too  great,  it  is  desirable  for  the  person  holding 
the  sheep  to  kneel  on  one  knee,  so  as  to  come  down  more  on 
a  level  with  the  animal  he  is  showing,  and  with  the  purpose 
of  letting  the  judge  see  as  much  of  the  sheep  and  as  little 
of  the  man  as  possible. 

The  use  of  the  hands  in  judging  a  sheep  is  made  neces- 
sary in  a  very  special  way.  The  body  of  the  animal  is  cov- 
ered with  wool,  perhaps  four  inches  thick  in  places.  It  is 
important,  not  only  that  the  wool  be  examined,  but  also 
that  the  conformation  below  the  layer  of  wool  be  deter- 
mined. This  latter  can  be  ascertained  only  by  the  aid  of 


Fig.  201. — "One  may  simply  hold  the  sheep  at 
the  head,  placing  the  left  hand  under  the  jaw 
and  the  right  hand  on  the  back  of  the  head." 


HOW  TO   HANDLE   AND   EXAMINE   SHEEP          371 


4 

i^re 


the  hands.     The  fingers  are  extended,  but  kept  close  to- 

gether, and  then  the  hand  is  pressed  down  upon  the  part 

to  be  felt.    The  object  in  keeping  the  fingers  close  together, 

is  twofold.    First,  one  does  not  make  numerous  holes  in  the 

fleece,  as  he  would  in  sticking  separate  fingers  into  the  wool, 

thereby  making  openings  in  which  chaff  and  dirt  may  lodge. 

Further,  by  pressing  down  on  the  wool,  with  the  fingers 

united  to  form  one      __ 

big    finger     as    it 

were,     the     judge 

may  easily  feel  the 

outline  of  the  form 

below.    By  holding 

the     ends    of    the 

f  i  n  g  e  rs  together, 

one  is  able  to  feel 

over    a   section    of 

the  body,  as  with  a 

sensitive   i  n  s  t  r  u- 

ment,    thus    deter- 

mining,   as   would 

not     be     possible 

otherwise,  the  char- 

acter   of    covering 

of  fleece  and  flesh, 

and  the  curves  and  outlines  of  the  body.     Sometimes  one 

hand  is  used,  sometimes  two,  but  the  man  who  knows  his 

business  never  musses  the  fleece,  and  when  he  is  done,  it  is 

in  as  good  form  as  before. 

The  covering  of  fleece  on  the  sheep  varies  greatly,  even 
on  the  same  animal,  in  length,  thickness,  quality,  etc.  One 
cannot  judge  with  any  certainty  as  to  the  character  of 
either  fleece  or  body,  without  a  systematic  examination  by 
hand  and  eye.  Under  ordinary  field  conditions  a  sheep  will 
appear  quite  different  from  one  under  show  ring  con- 
ditions, with  the  fleece  trimmed  by  the  shears,  and  blocked 
out.  As  one  passes  among  the  fitted  sheep  on  the  show 


Fig.  202. — "The  fingers  are  extended,  but 
kept  close  together,  and  then  the  hand  is 
pressed  down  upon  the  part  to  be  felt." 


372  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

grounds,  he  is  likely  to  see  many  animals,  especially  in  the 
large  exhibits,  that  appear  models  of  perfection.  However, 
the  judge  passing  over  them  finds  beneath  the  beautiful 
surface  of  fleece,  various  conditions  that  the  shepherd,  by 
the  use  of  his  shears,  has  carefully  hidden  from  the  super- 
ficial observer.  Where  the  back  droops  or  there  is  slack- 
ness behind  the  shoulder,  he  has  left  sufficient  length  of 
wool  to  give  fullness  of  outline,  and  if  there  is  peakediiess 


Fig.  203. — "Under  show  ring  conditions,  with  the  fleece  trimmed  by  the 
shears  and  blocked  out."     (Photo   by  courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 

behind,  the  shears  square  up  the  wool  so  as  to  make  the 
hindquarters  appear  thick  and  full.  Thus  defects,  some- 
times serious,  are  covered,  and  unfortunately,  oftentimes  at 
the  expense  of  the  inexperienced.  Hence  the  use  of  the 
hands,  as  a  necessity  in  finding  out  how  things  lie  beneath 
the  surface.  This  special  use  of  the  shears  is  limited 
to  the  mutton  breeds.  The  exhibitors  of  the  fine 


HOW   TO   HANDLE   AND   EXAMINE   SHEEP          373 

wooled  sheep  give  a  first  consideration  to  fleece,  and  pay 
nominal  attention  to  the  mutton  form,  excepting  those  of  the 
dual  purpose  class.  However,  there  are  many  very  beauti- 
ful and  highly  developed  sheep,  the  result  of  the  breeders 
art,  and  without  doubt  a  large  per  cent  of  the  animals  shown 
are  trimmed  and  fitted  with  the  purpose  of  simply  showing 
them  in  their  greatest  perfection. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

THE  CLASSIFICATION   OF  DOMESTIC   SHEEP. 

Sheep  may  be  classified  in  two  different  ways,  one  accord- 
ing to  conformation,  and  the  other  based  on  the  character 
of  the  fleece  borne  by  the  animal.  It  is  quite  customary  to 
classify  sheep  in  two  types,  the  mutton  and  Merino,  but 
this  in  itself  is  not  enough.  It  will  be  more  correct  to  have 
three  types,  comparable  in  conformation  with  the  grouping 
of  cattle,  viz.: 

(a)  Mutton  type,  comparable  with  the  beef  type. 

(6)  Merino,  of  class  A  type,  comparable  with  dairy 
type. 

(c)  Delaine  Merino,  or  dual  purpose  type. 

The  classification,  according  to  fleece,  may  be  made  as 
follows : 

(a)  The  fine  wool,  sometimes  termed  the  short  wool,  in- 
cluding all  the  Merino  families,  and  such  as  produce  a  wool 
fiber  of  the  finest  and  best  quality. 

(b)  The  middle  wool  including  all  recognized  mutton 
breeds,  producing  a  fleece  usually  three  to  four  inches  long, 
of  medium  fineness  and  quality. 

(c)  The  long"  wool,  produced  by  the  larger  breeds  as  a 
rule,  having  coarse,  open  fleeces,  often  seven  or  eight  inches 
long. 

In  view  of  the  great  growth  in  interest  in  sheep  as  sources 
of  meat,  rather  than  wool,  the  first  classification  given  above 
will  be  considered  as  the  more  important  and  common  one. 


374 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

THE  MUTTON  CARCASS  AND  ITS  CUTS. 

THE  mutton  sheep,  though  a  producer  of  wool,  is  prima- 
rily bred  and  fed  with  meat  as  the  main  object  in  view.  The 
fleece,  of  course,  is  important,  and  its  value  is  carefully  con- 
sidered by  the  flock  master,  but  mutton  is  the  first  consider- 
ation. This  being  so,  then  those  characteristics  necessary 
in  a  good  mutton  sheep  must  be  found  in  the  young  lambs 
beside  their  dams ;  in  the  feeder  sheep  in  the  market  ready 
for  fattening;  in  these  same  feeder  sheep  fed  and  finished 
for  the  block ;  and  in  the  breeding  ram  and  ewe  from  which 
our  supply  of  mutton  is  to  be  obtained.  The  feeder  when 
purchasing  his  sheep,  considers  quality  of  fleece  much  less 
than  quantity.  His  purpose  is  to  secure  stock  for  feeding 
that  will  come  back  to  market  either  as  prime  lambs  or  fat 
sheep.  The  price  brought  in  the  market  is  largely  in- 
fluenced by  the  carcass  outcome. 

If  one  is  to  be  a  qualified  judge  of  a  mutton  sheep,  it  is 
necessary  that  he  understand  the  carcass  conformation,  and 
the  common  method  of  cutting  it  up  for  consumption.  It  is 
also  of  importance  to  know  the  relative  values  of  the  several 
parts. 

The  method  of  cutting  up  the  carcass  of  mutton  applies 
with  little  variation  in  different  communities.  The  entire 
dressed  carcass  lacks  the  head,  and  may  or  may  not  have 
the  feet  up  to  the  ankle  joints.  The  first  step  in  cutting  is 
to  divide  the  carcass  into  two  halves,  either  by  splitting 
through  the  length  of  backbone  with  a  cleaver,  or  dividing 
with  the  saw.  In  some  markets,  where  roasting  pieces  from 

375 


Fig.  204. — "The  first  step  in  cutting  is  to  divide  the  carcass  into  two 

halves."     1,  leg  of  mutton;  2,  loin;   3,   ribs;  4,   plate;   5,   shoulder  and 

breast.      (Photo  by   courtesy  College  of   Veterinary  Medicine,  Ohio  State 
University.) 

376 


THE   MUTTON  CARCASS   AND   ITS   CUTS 


377 


the  width  of  the  back  are  desired,  the  carcass  is  not  cut 
through  lengthwise  as  described,  instead,  the  carcass  is 
cut  into  two  parts,  by  dividing  between  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  ribs.  The  part  next  to  the  hind  leg  is  known  as 
the  saddle,  while  the  other  part,  the  front  portion,  is  termed 
the  rack.  Many  country  butchers  divide  the  carcass  into 


Fig.  205. — Mutton  chops.     A,  ribs  ;  B,  loin. 

two  parts,  as  first  described,  and  then  either  cut  the  part 
between  hindquarter  and  shoulder  into  chops,  or  into  roast 
pieces,  as  the  trade  may  demand. 

The  saddle  of  mutton,  strictly  speaking,  consists  of  the 
loin  portion  of  the  back,  from  the  point  of  the  hip,  up  to 
and  including  the  thirteenth,  and  sometimes  the  twelfth  rib. 
This  section  weighs  about  48  per  cent  of  the  entire  carcass, 


378  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

the  forepart  Or  rack  weighing  about  52  per  cent  of  the 
whole.  This  is  not  a  saddle,  unless  consisting  of  the  entire 
piece  on  both  sides  of  the  backbone,  from  which  in  a 
measure  it  takes  its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  a  saddle. 
This  is  one  of  the  choicest  parts  of  the  carcass,  and  should 
be  broad,  thick  fleshed  and  smooth.  In  America,  as  a  rule, 
the  saddle  part  is  divided  into  halves,  and  used  as  a  roasting 
piece,  or  made  into  chops.  The  loin  chops  carry  a  great 
deal  of  fat,  but  are  very  tender  and  palatable. 

The  leg  of  mutton  usually  consists  of  the  entire  leg  up  to 
a  point  just  above  the  tail.  This  is  one  of  the  highest-priced 
parts,  because  of  the  fact  that  here  one  secures  the  largest 
per  cent  of  high  class  meat.  Consequently,  it  is  important 
that  the  leg  be  thick  and  meaty,  full  in  all  its  outlines,  that 
the  cuts  may  be  as  thick  as  possible.  A  short,  thick  leg  is 
most  to  be  desired.  The  lower  part  of  the  leg  is  chopped 
off  just  above  the  hock. 

The  rack  is  comparable  with  the  f  orequarter  of  beef.  The 
butcher  either  cuts  this  part  into  rib  chops  up  to  the  shoul- 
der, or  divides  it  into  roasting  pieces.  Usually  the  shoulder 
is  cut  off  between  the  third  and  fourth  ribs,  and  the  neck  is 
then  taken  off  where  it  joins  the  shoulder.  The  lower  part 
of  the  rack  consists  of  breast  and  a  thin  strip  at  the  ends  of 
the  ribs,  which  is  used  for  stewing.  If  the  rack  piece  includes 
ten  ribs,  it  is  called  the  short  rack.  This  piece  may  com- 
mand the  highest  price  in  the  carcass,  even  exceeding  the 
leg,  though  the  logic  of  the  situation  is  not  obvious.  This 
part  should  be  broad  and  smooth  over  the  top,  and  well 
covered  with  flesh,  and  showing  no  coarseness  or  waste.  The 
shoulder  does  not  rank  high  in  value,  but  if  thickly  covered 
with  flesh,  makes  a  good  roasting  piece,  with  the  blade  re- 
moved. 

The  relative  values  of  the  mutton  and  lamb  carcass  cuts 
are  clearly  set  forth  in  the  following  table,  as  given  by 
Prof.  H.  E.  Allen  of  Purdue  University.1 

1  Live  Stock  Judging  for  Beginners,  Circular  29,  Purdue  University,  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station,  1911,  p.  98. 


THE   MUTTON   CARCASS   AND   ITS   CUTS  ; 

WHOLESALE  MUTTON  AND  LAMB  CUTS. 

NAMKS  OF  WHOLESALE  Per  cent          Wholesale          Per  cent 

CITS  CUTS  weight  price   per  value 

carcass  pound  <-;iiv;iss 


...Legs         30.36  131/4  cts.  43.10 

Loin          21.43  8%    "  18.97 

Kark Hotel  or    short   rack       ..  14.28  12*4    "  .        18.76 

Stew  (chuck  and  breast)  33.9.°,  5*4    "  19.11 

These  figures  are  based  on  Chicago  standards,  with  prices 
of  1911.  While  these  percentages  of  parts  of  carcass  will 
not  be  exactly  the  same  in  all  markets,  and  prices  will  vary 
according  to  supply  and  demand,  the  figures  bring  out  in 
fair  degree  the  relative  importance  and  values  of  the  cuts. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

JUDGING  THE  MUTTON  TYPE  OF  SHEEP  BY 
THE  SCALE  OF  POINTS. 

The  systematic  examination  of  a  sheep  to  be  scored 

requires  following  the  plan  of  the  score  card.  It  is  custom- 
ary to  determine  first  the  age  by  examining  the  mouth,  as 
has  already  been  described.  The  sheep  is  then,  given  a 
general  examination,  both  with  eye  and  hand.  Following 
this  comes  the  more  detailed  inspection,  working  from  the 
head  to  the  hindquarters.  One  should  use  the  hands  with 


Fig.  206. — The  Points  of  the  Sheep. 

380 


JUDGING  THE   MUTTON   TYPE   OF   SHEEP 


381 


Fig.  207. — "To  comprehend  properly  the  animal  as  a  whole,  first  inspect 
from  a  distance." 

care  and  patience,  so  as  to  determine  as  accurately  as  pos- 
sible the  conformation  of  body  and  covering  of  flesh  below 
the  layer  of  wool.  This  may  be  quite  easy  in  spring  after 
shearing,  but  much  more  difficult  with  ten  months  of  thick 
fleece  over  the  body.  The  score  card  on  the  next  page  is 
suitable  for  scoring  a  fat  sheep. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  fat  wether  will  show 
much  the  same  conformation  as  that  of  the  fat  steer.  The 
characteristic  features  will  be  the  blocky  form,  well  covered 
with  flesh,  with  the  neck,  belly  and  legs  developed  no  more 
than  necessary  to  maintain  appropriate  balance  of  parts, 
and  suggesting  minimum  waste  in  killing.  To  comprehend 


382  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  FAT  SHEEP  OR  WETHER. 

Standard  of  Score  of 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  Perfect  Sheep 

Score  Studied 

Age    How   many  permanent   incisors 

A— GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  34  Points: 

Weight,  score  according  to  age G 

Form,  low  set,  medium  long,  broad,  deep,  symmet- 
rical   10 

Quality,  hair  and  wool  fine,  bone  neat,  skin  healthy, 

features  refined 8 

Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh  in  valuable 
parts.  Note  condition  of  dock,  purse  and  flank, 
as  showing  ripeness 10 

B— HEAD  AND  NECK,  7  Points: 

Muzzle,   fine,   lips  thin,   mouth  and   nostrils   of  good 

size         1  .... 

Eyes,    large,   bright,   placid         1  .... 

Face,    short,   features  well  defined 1  .... 

Forehead,  broad  and  full 1  .... 

Ears,  fine,  carried  alert 1  .... 

Neck,    thick,    short,    smooth,    blending    nicely    at 

shoulder 2  .... 

0— FOREQUARTERS,  7  Points: 

Shoulders,    smooth,    compact   on  top,   nicely  covered 

with  flesh 4  .... 

Brisket,   thick   and  prominent,   extending   in   front   of 

legs        2  .... 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  wide  apart,  shank  fine, 

feet  well  placed 1  .... 

D — BODY,  27  Points: 

Chest,  wide,  deep,  comparatively  large  girth   .  .       .  .  5  .... 

Back,  level,  medium  long,  wide,  smoothly  fleshed        .  .  8  .... 

Loin,  broad,   long,  thick  fleshed        9  .... 

Ribs,    well    sprung,    long,    close    together,    smoothly 

covered 3  .... 

Flanks,  low,  thick,  furnishing  straight  underlines      .  .  2  .... 

E— HINDQUARTERS,  16  Points: 

Hips,  smooth,  level,  medium  wide  apart 2  .... 

Rump,     long,      level,     wide     to     tail-head,      smoothly 

fleshed 5  

Thighs,  thickly  and  fully  fleshed 5  

Twist,  plump,  deep,  wide  angled        3  .... 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  shank  fine 1  .... 

F— WOOL,  9  Points: 

Quality,  fine,  soft,  uniform  over  body        3  .... 

Quantity,  dense,  even,  of  fair  length  for  age   .  .       .  .         3  .... 

Condition,    bright,    clean,    sound,    moderate    amount 

oil.  ...  3 


Total  points 100 


JUDGING  THE  MUTTON   TYPE   OF   SHKKP          383 


Fig.  208. — "The  judge  comes  to  the  front  of 
the  sheep,  by  the  left  shoulder,  and  grasps  the 
neck  in  his  right  hand  and  feels  its  thickness." 


properly  1lic  ntn- 
mal  as  a  whole, 
first  inspect  from 
a  distance,  as  for 
example  ten  or 
twelve  feet  away. 
Begin  the  examin- 
ation from  in 
front,  facing  the 
head,  a  n  d  then 
slowly  walk  about 
the  animal,  noting 
the  matter  of  pro- 
portion, closeness 
to  ground,  quality 
and  general  char- 
acter. 
The  weight  of  the  fat  sheep  is  a  matter  of  importance. 

The  large,  heavy  mutton  is  not  popular,  and  the  American 

market   prefers   the 

more  handy  weights 

approximating      8  0 

pounds   for  a  lamb 

and  140  pounds  for 

yearling  wethers. 

Heavy  sheep  at  one 

time    were    popular 

when     large     joints 

were   in   favor,   but 

the  present  day 

market   seeks   early 

maturity,     not     too 

much  fat,  and  small 

cuts.     However,  the 

English  still  use  the 

laro'C   "joints  of  mut-  Fig.  200. — "The  left  hand  may  be  lowered 

to  the  brisket,  where  the  width  here  may  be 
ton,      but      even      in        determined." 


384 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


Great  Britain  the  lighter  weight  is  getting  to  be  more  and 
more  favored.  In  scoring  weight,  one  should  not  discriminate 
severely  against  fat  mutton  of  the  larger  mutton  breeds, 
unless  over-fat  and  unnecessarily  large.  If  in  prime  con- 
dition, though  weighing  175  pounds  or  more,  a  wether  might 


. 


Fig.  210. — "In  this  position  one  may  judge  the  depth   of  body  through 

the  heart." 

be  scored  off  20  per  cent,  while  if  over-fat  and  undesirable 
as  a  killer,  he  might  be  scored  off  50  per  cent.  "Weight  of 
130  to  140  pounds  should  score  perfect. 

The  form  of  the  mutton  sheep  has  already  been  looked 
over  at  a  distance,  before  determining  the  matter  of  weight. 
It  now  requires  a  closer  inspection.  The  judge  comes  to 


JUDGING   THE  MUTTON   TYPE   OF   SHKKT 


385 


Fig.  211. — "Feel  with  the  right  hand  along 
the  center  of  the  back,  from  over  the  shoulders 
to  root  of  tail." 

ered  to  the  "brisket,  where  the  width 
mined.  "While  the  left  hand  is  here,  the 
over  the  shoulders, 
so  that  in  this  posi- 
tion one  may  judge 
the  depth  of  body 
through  the  heart. 
C  h  a  n  g  in  g  one 's 
position,  with  the 
back  toward  the 
hindquarters,  the 
h  a  n  d  s  may  be 
pressed  on  each 
side  the  body,  be- 
ginning just  back 
of  the  shoulders, 
near  the  top,  feel- 
ing gradually  on 
each  side  down  to 


the  front  of  the 
sheep,  by  the  left 
shoulder,  and 
grasps  the  neck  in 
his  right  hand,  and 
feels  its  thickness 
and  attachment  to 
body  and  head. 
Then  with  botli 
hands  he  presses 
down  on  each  side 
of  the  neck,  using 
his  finger-tips  to 
feel  the  union  of 
the  neck  with  the 
shoulders.  Having 
done  this,  the  left 
hand  may  be  low- 
here  may  be  deter- 
right  may  be  placed 


Fig.  212. — "With  the  hands  along  each  side  at 
the  shoulders." 


386 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


Fig.  213. — "The  space  between  the  hands  here 
indicates  the  width  of  back." 


the  front  flank, 
thus  estimating  the 
fullness  behind  the 
shoulder  and  in 
flank.  Next  feel 
with  the  right  hand 
along  the  center  of 
the  back,  from  over 
the  shoulders  to 
the  root  of  tail, 
thereby  ascertain- 
ing the  carriage 
and  covering  of 
back.  Then  move 
forward  again, 
commencing  this 
time  with  the 

hands  along  each  side,  at  the  shoulders,  gradually  moving 
backward,  examining  for  the  spring  of  rib,  and  thickness 
and  covering  of  body,  until  the  end  of  the  rump  is  reached. 
The  hands  move  along  the  back  toward  the  rump  until 
the  loin  is  reached.  The  space  between  the  hands 
here  indicates  the  width  of  back.  After  feeling  the 
width  of  loin,  the  hands  naturally  drop  back  to  the  hips, 
and  beyond  to  the  tail-head,  to  determine  the  width  between 
these  and  their  covering.  One  may  also  stand  back  of  the 
sheep  and  press  with  the  hands  at  different  points  on  the 
thighs,  to  get  an  idea  of  the  width  and  general  thickness 
at  this  point.  The  length  and  level  carriage  of  the  rump 
is  seen  b;y  standing  opposite  this  part,  and  measuring  with 
the  hands  the  distance  between  the  hip  and  end  of  rump. 
The  depth  from  the  end  of  rump  to  the  point  below  where 
the  quarters  join  may  be  determined  by  pressing  these  two 
parts  between  the  hands.  The  general  width  of  the  hind 
end  may  be  observed  by  pressing  against  the  outsides  of  the 
thighs  with  the  flattened  hands.  Finally,  the  leg  of  mutton 
receives  consideration,  including  the  hind  flank.  The  leg 


JUDGING  THE  MUTTON  TYPE   OF   SHEEP 


387 


in  its  thickest  part  is  grasped  by  the  two  hands,  and  its 
general  outlines  determined.  By  this  method  of  examina- 
tion with  the  hands,  the  judge  is  enabled  to  get  a  fair  idea 
of  the  general  proportions  and  covering  of  flesh.  No  effort 
at  deception  in  trimming  and  fixing  up  the  fleece  can  have 
much  value,  where  the  form  is  carefully  examined  with  the 
hands.  Such  an  examination  shows  whether  or  not  sym- 
metry prevails,  an  important  feature  of  correct  form.  An 
animal  with  long  neck,  narrow  chest,  short  ribs  and  peaked 
hind  end,  would  show  neither  symmetry  of  form,  nor  a 
body  that  would  meet  the  butcher's  requirements  for  a 
high-class  carcass. 

Quality  in  the  mutton  sheep,  is  especially  indicated  by 
fineness  of  bone,  hair  and  wool.  From  the  killing  point  of 
view,  perhaps  the  bone  offers  the  most  important  evidence, 
for  if  it  is  small  and  strong,  it  serves  every  purpose,  yet 


Fig.  214 — "The  hands  naturally  drop  back  to  the  hips,  and  beyond  to  the 
tail-head,  to  determine  the  width  between  these  and  their  covering." 


388 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


Fig.  215. — "Measuring  with  the  hands  the  dis- 
tance between  the  hip  and  end  of  rump." 


examples  of  moun- 
tain breeds  of 
sheep  have  rough 
hair  on  the  thighs, 
a  feature  breeders 
are  endeavoring  to 
eradicate.  An  im- 
portant evidence  of 
quality,  and  easily 
seen,  when  pres- 
ent, is  strong  breed 
character,  as  shown 
in  the  head.  No 
choice  example  of  a 
breed  is  likely  to 
show  coarseness. 
Some  score  cards 
emphasize  the  color 
and  character  of 


causes  as  little 
waste  as  possible 
in  the  carcass. 
Large,  coarse  bone, 
to  the  contrary, 
furnishes  too  great 
a  waste  in  killing. 
The  hair  on  the 
face  and  legs,  when 
fine,  also  indicates 
superior  quality. 
Coarseness  of 
either  hair  or  wool 
should  be  discrimi- 
nated against.  A 
heavy,  wrinkly  skin 
is  evidence  of 
coarseness.  Some 


Fig.  216. — "The  depth  from  the  end  of  the 
rump  to  the  point  below  where  the  quarters 
join  may  be  determined." 


JUDGING  THE  MUTTON   TYPE  OF   SHEEP          339 


Fig.  217. — "The  leg  in  its  thickest  part  is  grasped  by  the 
two  hands." 


the  skin,  but  as  a  rule,  no  satisfactory  examination 
of  the  skin  can  be  made,  excepting  for  color,  when 
a  heavy  fleece  is  carried.  Further,  it  is  doubtful 
if  the  color  of  the  skin,  when  healthy,  is  an  indica- 
tion of  quality.  Some  breeds,  such  as  the  Cheviot  and 
Merino,  are  noted  for  their  pink  skins,  while  some  other 
breeds  incline  to  a  bluish  or  mottled  blue-pink,  which  in- 
vites criticism  from  the  skin  critic.  Yet  these  bluish  colored 
skins  are  as  common  as  pink  ones  on  good  feeders.  Large, 
heavy  ears  are  indicators  of  coarseness,  especially  if  carried 
in  a  dull,  sluggish  style.  Perhaps  in  the  stockyards,  among 
buyers,  quality  is  regarded  as  most  important.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  sheep  with  the  most  quality  will 
dress  out  with  the  least  waste,  which  means  the  most  profit 
to  the  buyer. 


390  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

Condition  in  the  mutton  sheep,  refers  to  the  degree  of 
fatness  of  the  animal.  No  other  farm  animal  carries  in  its 
carcass  so  great  a  percentage  of  fat  as  does  the  sheep  in 
high  condition,  even  surpassing  the  hog  in  this  respect. 
Lawes  and  Gilbert,  in  their  studies  of  the  composition  of 
animal  bodies,1  showed  that  45.8  per  cent  of  an  extra-fat 
sheep  was  fat,  while  even  a  half -fat  old  sheep  carried  23.5 
per  cent  fat.  This  for  the  entire  animal.  Their  figures 
showed  55.1  per  cent  fat  in  the  carcass  of  an  extra-fat  sheep, 
as  compared  with  49.5  per  cent  in  a  fat  pig.  The  present 
day  demand  is  for  a  firm-fleshed  carcass,  with  only  a  mod- 
erate amount  of  condition.  As  one  handles  the  sheep,  and 
feels  for  condition,  the  response  to  the  touch  should  be 
firm  and  smooth,  with  evidence  to  show  that  the  flesh  is 
evenly  distributed  over  the  frame.  Craig  states 2  that 
the  fattening  process  seems  to  extend  from  the  inside  of  the 
sheep,  and  becomes  first  manifest  at  the  tail,  after  which  it 
appears  along  the  back,  then  over  the  shoulder  to  the  neck, 
from  which  it  seems  to  extend  down  the  sides  and  over  the 
breast  in  front.  There  are  six  especial  points  where  the 
judge  carefully  examines  for  condition,  about  the  tail-head 
or  dock,  along  the  middle  of  the  back,  the  neck,  flank,  breast 
and  purse.  In  these  places  he  feels  with  care,  looking  for 
plumpness  yet  firmness  of  condition.  When  in  too  high  a 
condition,  or  as  we  say  overdone,  sometimes  the  fat  slips 
down  from  along  the  top  of  the  front  ribs,  producing  a 
flattish  bevel  at  the  top,  and  giving  a  roundness  at  the  lower 
sides  of  the  chest  which  is  not  natural.  In  well-defined  cases 
of  this  sort,  one  may  place  the  hand  below  the  layer  of 
slipped  fat  at  the  flanks  and  shake  it  like  jelly.  Yet  all  cases 
of  shaky  sides  do  not  represent  "slipping,"  and  the  inex- 
perienced judge,  feeling  about  the  front  flanks,  sometimes 
thinks  he  has  a  case  of  slipped  fat,  when  it  is  simply  high 
condition  in  its  natural  position.  Smoothness  and  uniform- 
ity of  condition,  are  most  important  factors  in  the  opinion 

1  Journal  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  1898. 

2  Judging  Live  Stock.      John  A.  Craig,  Sixth  Edition,   1904,  p.  112. 


JUDGING   THE   MUTTON   TYPE   OF   SHEEP  391 

of  the  discriminating  judge.  He  passes  his  hands  along  over 
the  backbone,  to  note  whether  it  is  smoothly  and  evenly 
covered,  or  whether  there  are  bare  spots.  It  is  quite  liable 
to  be  bare  over  the  shoulders  and  a  dimple  or  tie  is  often 
found  in  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  sheep  in  right  con- 
dition will  often  show  a  shallow  groove  over  the  spine,  from 
tail  to  withers,  with  no  hard,  bare  spots  along  this  line.  It 
is  not  at  all  uncommon  for  animals  in  high  condition  to 
have  rolls  of  fat  on  the  sides  or  back,  or  patches  of  fat  about 
the  end  of  the  rump.  Sheep  thus  affected  are  discriminated 
against  by  buyers,  and  judges  pass  them  by  in  the  ring  for 
the  smooth  sort  that  show  the  least  waste  in  killing.  The 
fact  is,  no  animal  shows  so  much  waste  as  the  over-condition- 
ed sheep,  with  a  very  restricted  demand  for  the  excess  fat. 
The  important  thing  in  judging,  is  to  note  the  fleshing  and 
the  way  it  covers  the  frame.  It  is  rarely  that  the  animal  is 
equally  well  covered,  some  parts  being  bare  and  hard  to  the 
touch,  while  others  are  nicely  laid  in  under  a  cover  of  flesh. 
As  a  first  principle,  the  judge  should  place  a  premium  on 
the  covering  being  firm,  smooth  and  thick  over  the  more 
valuable  cuts,  such  as  the  back  and  leg  of  mutton.  There 
may  be  some  bareness  about  the  shoulder  without  much 
affecting  values,  but  on  the  top  and  rear  end,  the  condition 
should  bespeak  desirable,  high-priced  cuts.  In  judging, 
emphasize  two  things,  first,  uniform  smoothness,  of  the  cov- 
ering of  flesh,  and  second,  its  firmness  to  the  touch.  It  is 
better  to  have  a  sheep  not  fat  enough,  rather  than  too  fat, 
and  the  scoring  by  the  judge  should  be  guided  accordingly. 
Further,  if  there  is  some  bareness  in  front,  but  with  the 
back  and  legs  behind  nicely  covered,  do  not  grade  too  low ; 
a  good  carcass  is  probably  in  hand. 

The  head  and  neck  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  each  be 
short,  as  characteristic  of  meat-producing  animals.  These 
two  parts  in  harmonious  relation  to  each  other,  always 
favorably  impress  the  intelligent  feeder  or  butcher.  The 
head  as  a  whole  should  not  only  be  short,  but  also  broad 


392  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

through  the  eyes,  and  with  graceful  outlines  with  the  parts 
clearly  denned. 

The  muzzle,  which  includes  mouth  and  nostrils,  should  be 
of  good  size,  with  capacity  for  feeding  well.  Thin,  yet 
strong  lips  are  important,  for  the  sheep  uses  them  constantly 
to  assist  in  drawing  in  herbage  while  grazing  or  feeding  on 
the  light  roughage  best  suited  to  it.  Comparatively  large 
nostrils,  as  associated  with  the  organs  of  respiration,  give 
evidence  of  full  breathing  capacity. 

The  eyes  of  the  sheep  in  some  cases  are  bold  and  promi- 
nent, while  with  others  they  are  hidden  by  wool  to  such  a 
degree  that  sight  is  interfered  with.  A  large,  placid,  yet 
bright  eye,  placed  attractively  in  reasonably  prominent 
sockets  will  give  evidence  of  alert  character.  The  whites  of 
the  eye  should  be  easily  seen.  Softie  shepherds  prefer  eyes 
with  clear  whites,  with  little  dark  coloring  or  veining,  be- 
lieving such  eyes  go  with  the  best  feeders.  A  bloodshot  eye 
may  indicate  a  poor  physical  condition,  and  is  objectionable 
in  any  great  degree. 

The  face  of  the  sheep,  as  has  already  been  indicated, 
should  be  short.  This  gives  a  strong  jaw,  a  feature  of  the 
best  feeder.  Well  denned  features  of  the  face  give  evidence 
of  quality  and  good  breeding.  The  face  below  the  eyes 
should  be  broad,  furnishing  ample  room  for  the  respiratory 
canals  in  the  lower  part  of  the  skull. 

The  forehead  of  the  sheep  should  be  broad  and  well 
rounded  out.  The  broad  forehead  gives,  evidence  of  intel- 
ligence. It  is  also  necessarily  a  feature  of  the  short,  wide 
head  of  the  best  feeders.  A  narrow  forehead,  lacking 
prominence,  would  rather  indicate  a  lower  degree  of  intel- 
ligence, and  perhaps  undesirable  disposition. 

The  ears  of  the  sheep  vary  considerably  in  size  and  shape, 
according  to  breed  or  blood  lines.  Some  breeds  have  short 
and  rather  small  ears,  as  for  example  the  Southdown,  while 
in  other  breeds  they  are  long  and  prominent.  A  first  neces- 
sity in  the  ear  is  quality,  the  attachment  to  the  head  being 
neat  and  well  placed,  and  the  texture  of  the  ear  relatively 


JUDGING  THE  MUTTON   TYPE  OF  SHEEP          393 


Fig.  218. — "The  f>ars  of  snoop  vary  considerably  in  size1  and  shape." 

thin  and  with  no  evidence  of  coarseness.  Further,  the  ear 
should  be  an  index  of  disposition  and  interest  in  things,  and 
where  not  interfered  with  by  wool  or  horn,  should  be  car- 
ried rather  erect  most  of  the  time.  A  droopy,  heavy  ear 
indicates  something  of  a  dull  temperament,  and  perhaps 
a  poor  feeder.  One  likes  to  see  an  animated  carriage  of  the 
ear  on  the  sheep,  just  as  much  as  on  the  horse,  and  for  the 
same  reason. 

The  neck  of  the  mutton  sheep,  as  has  been  said,  should 
be  short  and  thick,  this  conformation  combining  meat  pro- 
duction and  strength.  To  examine  the  neck,  grasp  it  with 
one  hand  where  it  joins  the  head,  and  feel  for  thickness  at 
this  point*  Then  standing  against  the  side  of  the  sheep, 
facing  the  front,  press  with  each  hand  against  the  neck  in 
its  lower  part,  and  note  its  character  and  the  way  it  joins  the 
body  at  the  shoulders.  The  neck  should  be  full  here,  and 
neatly  blend  into  the  shoulders  at  the  point  just  in  front, 
which  is  called  the  shoulder  vein  or  neck  vein.  Depression 


394  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

in  front  of  the  shoulders,  or  thinness  of  the  neck,  indicates 
an  unevenly  fleshed  and  thin-conditioned  beast. 

The  forequarters  of  the  sheep  consist  of  the  shoulders, 
brisket  and  legs.  In  the  mutton  type  a  roundness  and  full- 
ness in  this  part,  above  the  legs  proper,  is  highly  essential 
for  good  conformation.  The  character  of  the  f orequarter  to 
some  degree  determines  in  what  type  or  class  a  sheep  may  be 
placed. 

The  shoulder  of  the  mutton  sheep,  while  not  a  high- 
priced  cut,  is  regarded  with  favor  by  many.  When  well 
laid  in  and  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  flesh,  it  furnishes 
a  fairly  good,  cheap  roasting  piece,  especially  if  the  blade  is 
taken  out.  In  examining  the  shoulders  with  each  hand,  feel 
for  a  smooth  compact  covering  on  top,  with  the  points  of  the 
blades  fairly  close  together.  The  shoulder  itself  should  be 
neatly  covered  in  all  its  parts,  and  especially  over  the  points, 
which  frequently  are  somewhat  prominent.  A  heavy 
shoulder  point  is  inconsistent  with  the  best  mutton  confor- 
mation. Four  points  are  credited  to  this  part  under  ideal 
condition,  but  a  large  per  cent  of  the  animals  will  probably 
score  three  or  less. 

The  brisket  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  project  somewhat 
in  front  of  the  legs,  and  have  a  width  that  will  indicate  a 
large  chest  capacity.  The  brisket  is  an  important  indicator 
of  constitution.  Note  in  judging,  while  standing  facing  the 
front  quarters,  that  the  brisket  is  wide,  with  a  well-rounded, 
plump  outline,  slightly  grooved  on  its  underside.  The  best 
examples  of  mutton  sheep  show  much  fullness  of  breast  and 
withers,  excellent  indicators  of  mutton  character  and  vigor. 
Some  judges  prefer  to  examine  the  brisket  by  placing  the 
sheep  on  its  rump  with  the  brisket  facing  upward,  whereby 
its  rear  part  may  be  seen  to  advantage. 

The  front  legs  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  be  straight, 
short,  and  carried  strong  and  well  apart.  Many  sheep 
from  a  front  view,  show  prominent  curves  inward  at  the 
knee  joints.  This  is  a  bad  conformation,  because  it  is  as- 
sociated with  a  narrow  or  wedge-shaped  chest.  The  legs 


JUDGING   THE   MUTTON   TYPE   OF   SHEEP          395 

should  come  down  as  straight  as  possible  on  each  side,  and 
if  this  is  the  case,  then  they  will  stand  wide  apart,  and  allow 
ample  chest  room  between.  Long  legs  are  decidedly  objec- 
tionable because  they  indicate  unnecessary  waste  in  killing. 
Further,  they  frequently  accompany  poor  constitution. 
Short  legs  furnish  a  minimum  waste,  and  are  characteristic 
features  associated  with  strong  constitution.  The  bone  of  the 
leg  should  be  fine  and  lack  all  roughness,  giving  evidence  of 
little  waste  at  slaughter.  Attention  should  be  directed  to 
the  feet,  to  see  that  the  toes  are  well  carried,  and  point 
directly  forward.  From  the  butcher's  point  of  view  this  is 
not  so  important,  but  if  we  consider  the  shipper  or  producer, 
correct  conformation  with  the  ability  to  walk  well,  insuring 
delivery  to  market  in  good  shape,  is  of  unquestionable  im- 
portance. While  only  one  point  is  given  to  the  legs  in  the 
scale  of  points,  if  they  are  of  distinctly  defective  carriage, 
they  should  be  scored  off  from  25  to  50  per  cent  according 
to  conditions. 


Fig.  219. — "Long  legs  are  decidedly  objectionable  because  they  indicate 
unnecessary  waste  in  killing.  Further,  they  frequently  accompany  poor 
constitution." 


396  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  body  of  the  mutton  sheep,  furnishing  as  it  does  the 
highest-priced  meat,  is  given  a  maximum  credit  of  twenty- 
seven  points  in  the  ideal  animal.  Expert  judges  usually 
give  very  critical  inspection  to  this  section  of  the  body, 
for  a  sheep  would  not  be  a  creditable  example  of  mutton 
type  if  lacking  in  the  middle  piece,  where  the  high-priced 
cuts  are  found.  The  body  may  be  best  examined  by  stand- 
ing directly  back  of  the  animal,  so  that  the  hands  may  be 
freely  used  on  the  back,  sides  and  flank. 

The  chest  of  the  sheep  represents  the  entire  section  of 
the  body  as  measured  just  back  of  the  shoulders.  The  girth 
here  should  be  comparatively  large,  with  wide  rather  than 
narrow  curves  at  top  and  bottom  of  the  chest.  As  the  vital 
organs,  the  heart  and  lungs  are  located  within  the  chest, 
it  is  at  once  apparent  that  a  wide,  deep  chest  capacity  should 
be  associated  with  large,  strong  vital  organs.  A  narrow, 
shallow,  flat-ribbed  chest,  is  always  regarded  as  evidence  of 
weak  constitution.  Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  front 
ribs  having  sufficient  arch  to  allow  great  fullness  in  heart 
girth,  rather  than  having  a  depression  back  of  the  shoulders, 
for  in  this  lies  the  difference  between  a  good  chest  and  a 
poor  one.  A  narrow-chested  animal  also  rarely  carries  the 
wealth  of  flesh  to  be  found  in  the  one  with  full  chest.  Score 
the  narrow  chest  severely. 

The  back  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  first  of  all  be  wide 
and  of  medium  length.  A  long  back  usually  is  loose  jointed 
and  does  not  carry  its  weight  well.  The  back  should  pre- 
ferably be  level,  as  characteristic  of  vigor  and  constitution, 
though  the  butcher  cares  little  about  this,  if  there  is  wide, 
thick  covering  of  firm  flesh.  The  backbone  should  be  so 
covered  with  flesh  that  no  amount  of  handling  will  reveal 
to  the  touch  the  ends  of  the  spines  or  a  hard,  bare  back.  A 
shallow  groove  along  over  the  spine,  once  before  referred  to, 
indicates  the  easy  feeder  and  desirable  butcher  beast.  If  the 
back  is  unevenly  fleshed,  score  more  severely  than  if  lack- 
ing in  thickness  of  uniform  covering.  If  over-fat  and  soft 
of  flesh,  the  score  should  be  low.  Here  in  the  back  is  where 


JUDGING  THE   MUTTON   TYPE   OF   SHEEP  397 

one  usually  finds  the  most  striking  evidence  of  the  too-fat 
animal,  and  where  excess  fat  is  most  objectionable  on  ac- 
count of  the  high  percentage  of  waste  in  the  cuts  of  this 
part.  A  rib  roast  or  chop  from  here,  at  best,  shows  a  large 
per  cent  of  bone  and  fat  to  lean  tissue.  Many  people  value 
this  part  on  account  of  the  superior  quality  of  the  meat,  but 
others  object  to  buying  it,  on  account  of  the  waste.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  this  part  having  no  superfluous  fleshing. 

The  loin  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  combine  breadth, 
length  and  thickness.  With  this  conformation  we  secure  a 
strong  constitution,  the  thick  muscles  protecting  the  kidneys 
below,  and  at  the  same  time  we  secure  the  desirable  thick- 
ness of  loin  chop  or  roast.  "While  not  commanding  quite 
as  high  a  price  as  the  rib  part,  the  fact  is  the  loin  furnishes 
the  very  choicest  of  cut,  with  much  less  waste  than  in  the 
ribs.  In  judging  this  part,  seek  for  some  rounding  up  and 
fullness  here,  and  regard  any  depression  as  evidence  of  weak 
conformation,  with  not  enough  thickness  of  loin  covering. 
Nine  points  are  credited  to  the  perfect  loin,  as  reference  to 
the  scale  of  points  will  show,  thus  emphasizing  the  impor- 
tance of  this  part. 

The  ribs  of  the  mutton  sheep,  in  correct  conformation, 
show  a  wide  arch  on  top,  with  an  associated  length  such  as 
provides  a  body  of  depth  and  great  digestive  capacity.  Arch 
and  length  of  rib  are  absolutely  necessary  in  the  sheep  that 
is  to  be  a  good  feeder.  The  ribs  should  be  smoothly  and 
thickly  covered  with  flesh,  and  this  desirable  covering  can 
be  best  secured  on  the  kind  of  ribs  described.  When  the 
body  is  not  paunchy,  that  is,  having  no  excess  of  belly,  then 
if  of  sufficient  thickness  and  depth,  we  get  the  greatest  pos- 
sible weight,  a  very  essential  point.  If  arch  of  rib  is  lack- 
ing, then  the  high-priced  cuts  are  narrower  and  con- 
sequently less  valuable. 

The  flanks  of  the  mutton  sheep  serve  as  a  measure  of  the 
digestive  capacity  and  condition  of  the  animal.  If  the  flank 
is  low,  furnishing  a  straight  underline,  then  usually  the 
body  is  deep,  which  fact  can  easily  be  noted  by  standing 


398  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

away  a  few  feet,  and  taking  a  side  view.  Thus  we  have  an 
indication  of  digestive  capacity.  The  flank,  as  has  already 
been  stated,  furnishes  evidence  of  condition.  By  grasping 
the  flank  in  the  hand,  one  may  note  whether  it  is  thick  and 
full,  indicating  a  degree  of  fatness,  or  whether  it  is  thin, 
evidencing  the  animal  to  be  in  lean  flesh.  When  walking, 
the  sheep  in  high  condition  often  shows  something  of  a 
bulge  or  roll  at  the  hind  flanks,  though  this  is  not  always 
so  apparent  with  sheep,  as  they  have  considerable  amount 
of  wool  at  this  place.  A  thin,  high  flank  in  a  fat  sheep 
may  justly  be  scored  off  25  to  50  per  cent. 

The  hindquarters  of  the  mutton  sheep  have  always  been 
rated  as  of  high  value,  and  in  the  British  trade  probably 
this  part  has  been  given  a  first  consideration.  Certain  it  is 
that  the  British  flockmaster  has  emphasized  a  thick,  meaty 
hindquarter  to  a  far  greater  degree  than  has  been  the  case 
in  America,  in  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  thickest  and 
meatiest  cuts  come  from  this  part.  The  fact  is,  about  45 
per  cent  of  the  carcass,  as  is  shown  on  page  377,  is  found 
in  the  hindquarter. 

The  hips  of  the  mutton  sheep  in  good  flesh  should  be 
smoothly  covered  with  flesh,  and  have  a  fair  width  between. 
The  hips  of  wethers  are  somewhat  closer  together  than  are 
those  of  ewes,  but  the  more  important  thing  is  that  they 
be  well  covered. 

The  rump  of  the  mutton  sheep,  if  we  are  to  have  a 
maximum  amount  of  flesh,  must  be  long,  level  and  wide.  As 
one  stands  at  some  distance  on  the  side,  and  surveys  the 
rump,  it  should  appear  in  much  the  same  level  from  hips 
to  tail-head.  A  common  defect  is  for  the  rump  to  be  steep 
or  "droopy/'  as  it  is  often  termed.  The  more  droopy  the 
rump,  the  shorter  will  be  the  leg  of  mutton  in  its  most 
valuable  part.  When  viewed  from  behind,  the  rump  should 
appear  comparatively  level  and  wide  on  each  side  of  the 
backbone,  with  its  outer  boundary  quite  in  line  with  the 
points  of  the  hips.  Sloping  rumps  are  far  too  common. 
When  the  rump  is  both  steep  and  narrow,  we  have  the 


JUDGING   THE   MUTTOX   TYPE    OF    S11KKP  ;;<)<) 

"peaked"  rump,  a  very  objectionable  conformation,  with 
the  minimum  amount  of  flesh  at  the  top  of  the  leg.  But 
if  the  rump  combines  length,  levelness  and  width,  then  there 
will  be  a  maximum  amount  of  flesh  at  this  part.  The  jiidnv 
should  carefully  examine  the  rump,  and  see  that  its  shape 
is  of  the  desirable  sort,  and  not  due  to  the  shears  of  the  shep- 
herd. It  is  a  simple  matter  to  make  the  examination  with 
the  hands,  as  one  stands  directly  back  of  the  animal.  De- 
mand not  only  a  correct  conformation,  but  also  a  smooth, 
firm,  thick  fleshing  over  this  part. 

The  thighs  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  be  thickly  fleshed 
as  may  be  shown  by  firmly  grasping  the  leg  between  the 
thumb  and  fingers  in  each  hand,  placing  one  hand  in  front 
of  the  thick  part  of  the  thigh,  high  up,  and  the  other  on  the 
hind  part.  The  general  thickness  and  covering  of  muscle 
may  thus  be  easily  determined.  The  fleshing  sjiould  come 
down  low  toward  the  hock,  so  as  to  yield  as  much  meat  as 
possible,  both  on  inside  and  outside  of  the  thigh.  Mutton 
conformation  demands  the  fullest  measure  of  flesh  at  this 
place. 

The  twist  is  the  point  where  the  thick,  fleshy  part  of  the 
upper  thigh  curves  sharply  to  blend  with  the  narrower  part 
of  the  thigh  below  on  its  inner  side.  One  grasps  the  thigh 
at  the  twist  with  either  right  or  left  hand,  and  feels  up 
into  the  muscle,  when  examining  the  leg  of  mutton.  A 
rear  view  of  a  good  example  of  a  newly  shorn  mutton  sheep, 
will  show  a  wide  curve  on  the  inside  of  each  thigh,  with  a 
low  down  fleshing  filling  in  the  space  at  the  top  of  the 
curves.  The  thinner  and  more  slender  the  leg,  the  less  evi- 
dent the  twist,  and  the  higher  up  the  attachment  between. 
A  very  marked  twist  guarantees  a  wide,  thick-fleshed  sheep 
in  its  rear  end. 

The  hind  legs  of  the  mutton  sheep  should  be  straight, 
short  and  strong,  for  the  same  reasons  given  regarding  the 
front  legs.  However,  the  hind  legs  have  the  hock  joint,  and 
the  sheep  has  quite  a  tendency  to  bring  the  points  of  the 
hocks  together.  When  this  occurs,  the  space  between  the 


400 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


legs  of  mutton  is  reduced,  from  which  we  may  expect  a 
narrower  hind  end  than  it  would  be  if  the  legs  were  widely 
carried.  If  the  sheep  hocks  in,  then  the  toes  will  point  out. 
A  space  of  three  to  five  inches  between  the  hocks,  under 
natural  conditions,  will  give  a  satisfactory  position  for  the 
legs  from  a  rear  point  of  view.  From  a  side  view,  the  legs 
from  hock  to  ankle  should  stand  quite  vertical,  with  the 


Fig.  220.— "One  grasps   the  thigh  at  the  twist  with  either  right  or  left 
hand,  and  feels  up  into  the  muscle,  when  examining  the  leg  of  mutton." 

point  of  the  hock  just  in  line  with  the  point  of  the  rump. 
The  legs  are  frequently  carried  too  much  beneath  the  body, 
while  some  sheep  carry  the  legs  too  far  back,  with  the  hocks 
noticeably  beyond  the  rump.  Either  of  these  positions  is 
to  be  criticized  as  lacking  in  strength.  The  bone  of  the  leg 
should  be  free  of  all  coarseness,  giving  evidence  of  dressing 
out  with  little  waste.  The  toes  should  point  directly  for- 


JUDGING   THE  MUTTON   TYPE   OF   SHEEP 


401 


ward,  being  level  and  true  on  the  hoof,  and  supporting  a 
pastern  that  is  neither  too  long  nor  too  sloping. 

Wool  on  the  mutton  sheep,  as  has  already  been  stated,  is 
usually  of  secondary  importance  to  flesh  production.  The 
score  card  gives  a  total  of  nine  points  to  the  wool.  If  a 
mutton  sheep  is  being  judged  as  a  butcher's  beast  at  a 
great  fat  stock  show,  the  judge  gives  comparatively  little 
attention  to  the  amount  and  covering  of  wool,  but  if  the 
animal  is  to  be  judged  as  a  breeding  sheep,  then  more  con- 
sideration is  given  to  this  point.  Very  brief  reference  will, 
therefore,  be  given  to  the  wool  at  this  time,  this  subject  be- 
ing discussed  in  detail  under  Merino  type,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred  on  page  426.  Three  factors  of  impor- 
tance must  be  considered  in  this  connection,  namely, 
quality,  xquantity  and  condition. 

The  quality  of  the  wool  on  the  mutton  sheep  is  an  in- 
dication of  the  quality  of  the  sheep  as  a  whole.  A  fine,  soft 
fleece,  uniform  in 
character  over 
much  of  the  body, 
is  desirable.  Yet 
this  fineness  is  only 
comparative.  The 
long-wooled  sheep 
of  the  mutton  type, 
naturally  carry  a 
coarser  fiber  than 
the  smaller,  me- 
dium-wooled  sheep. 
In  each  case,  re- 
finement of  wool 
fiber  is  desired 
rather  than  coarse- 
ness, for  generally 
speaking,  we  may 

assume      that      the  Fi^    221.— "To   study   the   quality,    part  the 

,        .       ,       wool  at  several  points,  especially  on  the  neck, 
liner  WOOled  animal       shoulder,  middle  of  side  and  thigh." 


402 


JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 


Fig.  222. — "He  easily  sees  the  length  when 
parts  the  fleece." 


he 


will  dress  out  with 
less  waste.  Another 
-  evidence  of  quality 
is  a  crimpy  condi- 
tion of  the  wool, 
with  fine,  wavy  or 
serrated  lines  like 
the  teeth  of  a  saw. 
Crimp  gives  elas- 
ticity to  the  wool, 
which  is  a  valuable 
quality.  In  the 
fleeces  of  the  large, 
long-wooled  sheep, 
the  crimp  is  in 
long  waves  rather 

than  serrations,  while  with  the  smaller  sheep  of  the 
middle  wool  type,  there  is  a  short,  fine  crimp.  The  fineness 
of  the  fiber  is  more  or  less  affected  by  the  thickness  of  the 
wool  over  the  body,  the  thicker  it  is,  the  finer  it  will  be. 
To  study  the  quality  part  the  wool  at  several  points, 
especially  on  the  neck,  shoulder,  middle  of  side  and  thigh, 
and  note  comparative  fineness,  crimp  and  softness,  the  lat- 
ter feature  be'ing  determined  by  pressure  under  the  fingers. 
The  quantity  of  wool  produced  by  the  mutton  sheep 
impresses  the  sheep  buyer,  especially  the  butcher,  more  than 
the  quality.  Then  he  seeks  for  two  things  especially,  length 
and  density.  He  easily  sees  the  length  when  he  parts  the 
fleece,  and  the  density  he  judges  by  grasping  the  wool,  and 
determining  if  it  covers  the  body  thickly,  indicating  a  heavy 
fleece.  What  the  buyer  wishes  is  a  heavy  weighing  fleece, 
and  this  cannot  be  secured  unless  it  has  length  and  is  dense 
or  thickly  placed  over  the  body.  These  features  should 
obtain  over  the  sheep  in  general,  and  so  it  is  necessary  to 
critically  inspect  the  length  and  density  of  covering  on 
different  parts  of  the  body.  Bareness  of  belly  and  legs  in- 
dicates light  weight  fleece.  Also  a  fleece  that  easily  parts  in 


JUDGING   THE   MFTTOX   TYPE   OF   SHEEP  403 

its  locks,  opening  gaps  toward  the  skin  in  which  chaff  and 
dirt  readily  catch,  gives  evidence  of  lack  of  density  and 
weighing  lighter  than  would  be  the  case  otherwise.  A  dense 
fierce  is  more  easily  kept  clean  than  one  that  is  open,  a 
matter  of  importance. 

The  condition  of  the  wool  of  the  mutton  sheep  relates 
to  its  color,  lustre,  freedom  from  foreign  matter,  and  amount 
and  character  of  oil,  or  what  the  shepherd  terms  grease  or 
yolk.  When  the  wool  is  parted,  and  is  examined  from  the  ex- 
terior of  the  fleece,  down  to  the  skin,  it  should  show  a  bright, 
clean,  soft  appearance.  Some  fleeces,  especially  the  long 
wools,  show  a  glisten  or  lustre,  that  adds  to  its  value  in  cer- 
tain markets.  In  a  good  quality  of  fleece  we  also  find  more  or 
less  oil,  which  gives  brightness  and  life  to  the  fiber,  making 
it  stronger  and  more  elastic  than  it  would  be  if  harsh  and 
dry.  A  heavy  secretion  of  oil,  however,  is  objectionable, 
owing  to  the  resulting  shrinkage  in  scouring.  Usually  ex- 
cessive oil  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  greasy  dirt  on  the 
exterior  of  the  fleece,  manifest  to  the  eye  in  color,  or  by  the 
extent  the  hands  become  oily.  A  dirty  fleece,  with  more  or 
less  chaff  and  foreign  matter,  is  undesirable.  In  scoring  the 
fleece  of  the  mutton  sheep,  it  is  not  necessary  to  cut  down 
the  points  severely.  A  20  to  30  per  cent  pruning 
from  jthe  standard,  is  a  fair  amount,  though  the  lack  of 
weight  or  presence  of  dirt  might  justify  even  more  severity. 


CHAPTER    XXXYI. 

THE  COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  MUTTON  SHEEP. 

AFTER  the  score  card  has  been  used  a  number  of  times  on 
individual  sheep,  to  familiarize  one  in  this  work,  then  the 
next  step  should  be  to  compare  two  or  more  sheep  of  the 
same  class.  The  use  of  the  score  card  may  be  made  in  this 
comparison,  by  placing  two  sheep  side  by  side,  going  over 
the  same  parts  of  each  animal  in  regular  order,  filling  out 
the  score  in  the  process.  Thus  a  numerical  score  may  be 
made,  with  each  part  up  for  comparison  in  its  turn.  The 
method  of  judging  involved  in  this  Case,  is  simply  that  of 
score  card  work,  but  where  more  than  one  animal  is  in- 
volved, it  is  also  comparative.  The  greater  the  number  of 
animals  to  be  scored  in  comparative  judging,  the  more 
tedious  the  process,  due  to  the  amount  of  time  necessary  to 
estimate  and  record  values  on  the  cards.  Following  this, 
considerable  time  will  be  necessary  to  figure  up  the  different 
scores,  and  then  perhaps  make  some  readjustments  in  satis- 
fying oneself  for  a  final  judgment. 

Comparative  judging  of  mutton  sheep  in  pens  of  three 
to  five  individuals,  without  the  use  of  the  score  card,  offers 
the  most  satisfactory  method  of  studying  these  animals.  It 
is  customary  for  each  animal  to  be  held,  so  that  the  sheep 
shall  stand  in  line,  side  by  side.  There  should  be  space 
enough  between  the  animals  to  permit  free  movement  on 
the  part  of  the  judge.  He  should  first  walk  about  and  view 
the  group  from  a  distance  that  will  permit  satisfactory 
general  comparison.  One  should  walk  in  front  of  the  sheep, 
to  compare  heads,  shoulders,  breasts  and  legs,  and  thenjpass 
to  the  rear  to  compare  the  backs,  rumps,  thighs  and  posi- 
tions of  legs.  The  sheep  may  at  this  time  be  placed  in 

404 


COMPARATIVE   STUDY  OF   MUTTON   SHEEP        405 


single  file,  one  behind  another,  so  that  a  comparative  side 
•view  will  be  available,  showing  the  animals  in  profile.  This 
view  gives  one  a  nice  comparison  of  length  of  neck,  back 
line,  length  and  depth  of  body,  length  and  carriage  of  rump, 
and  length  and  placing  of  legs.  This  is  a  preliminary  study 
of  general  appearance  up  to  this  point.  The  judge  should 
now  begin  a  careful  examination  of  each  individual  in  the 


Pig.  223. — "One  should  walk  in  front  of  the  sheep,  to  compare  heads, 
shoulders,   breasts  and  legs.'' 

group,  beginning  at  the  head,  and  systematically  going  over 
it  as  directed  in  the  process  of  scoring.  In  making  this 
examination,  the  hands  should  assist  the  eye,  so  that  any 
possible  use  of  the  shears  will  not  affect  one's  accuracy  of 
judgment.  The  strong  and  weak  points  of  each  sheep 
should  be  manifest  to  the  judge,  so  that  he  may  be  en- 
abled to  come  to  a  decision  as  to  how  they  shall  be  placed 
in  regular  order  of  merit.  These  sheep  being  of  the  mutton 
type,  emphasis  must  be  placed  on  weight,  condition,  quality, 


406 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


compactness  of  form,  breadth  of  back,  thickness  of  hind- 
quarter,  depth  of  body,  shortness  of  neck  and  legs,  and 
character  of  fleece.  If  examined  as  fat  sheep,  then  condition, 
necessarily,  is  of  prime  importance.  Each  animal  must  be 
studied  and  a  mental  comparison  made  with  one  that  scores 
100  per  cent.  As  the  butcher's  block  is  the  measure  of 


Fig.  224. — "One  must  be  careful  not  to  give  high  plaeings  to  animals  that 
seriously  lack  balance." 

value  in  the  case  of  the  fat  sheep,  it  is  important  that  the 
judge  should  not  allow  points  of  secondary  value  to  affect 
his  judgment  on  essentials.  The  judge  in  the  show  ring,  after 
sufficient  examination,  in  case  of  considerable  competition, 
often  draws  from  the  line  those  that  he  regards  of  merit, 
not  occupying  his  attention  with  the  remainder.  The  few 
drawn  out  are  then  lined  up  as  a  separate  group,  and  the 


COMPARATIVE   STUDY  OF   MUTTON   SHEEP        407 

judge  begins  to  place  them  somewhat  in  order  of  merit. 
Where  competition  is  severe,  various  comparisons  and  shifts 
of  place  may  be  made,  before  the  judge  completes  his  task. 
One  must  be  careful  not  to  give  high  placing  to  animals 
that  seriously  lack  balance,  because  such  decisions  may 
involve  a  serious  criticism  of  judgment.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  compare  in  detail  the  more  important  points  seriously 
affecting  a  decision.  Compare  the  backs  and  their  cover- 
ing, as  a  special  study,  then  compare  rumps  and  legs  of 
mutton,  in  like  way,  and  thus  critically  weigh  up  those 
parts  of  greatest  value,  that  they  may  have  their  true 
rating.  Such  comparative  study  of  the  parts  is  very 
helpful  in  aiding  one  to  a  sound  decision,  if  there  is  any 
doubt  in  making  the  placings. 

One  may  make  up  a  comparative  score  card,  after  the 
following  manner,  in  order  to  give  a  rating  to  comparable 
parts  on  different  animals. 

FAT  SHEEP  COMPARISON  CARD. 
Name  of  Judge Date  Judged . 

First       Second        Third    Fourth 
l>()INrs   T<)   -llTI)(iE  Place        Place         Place       Place 

Size       

Condition •  •  •  •  •  •  •  • 

Quality         ....  ....          .... 

Head  and  neck ....  ....  .... 

Breast  ....          ....          .... 

Shoulder       .  .      .  .     • ....          ....          .... 

Chest 

Back 

Rib        

Loin      ....  ....          .... 

Rump ....          ....          .... 

Leg  of  mutton ....  ....  .... 

Legs ....          ....          .... 

Fleece  

Placing ....          ....          .... 


408  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Each  animal  is  given  a  number  or  letter,  and  the  judge 
gives  to  the  features  of  each  kind  compared,  ratings  in  one, 
two,  three  order.  For  example,  in  comparing  condition,  he 
might  give  C  first  place,  A  second,  D  third  and  B  fourth. 
In  this  manner  he  would  systematically  make  certain  com- 
parisons. He  would  not  necessarily  give  first  place  to  the 
animal  having  the  most  first  placings,  unless  the  more  vital 
factors,  such  as  condition,  quality,  back,  and  leg  of  mutton, 
would  justify  such  a  placing.  This  method  of  comparison 
is  extremely  interesting,  and  while  not  usually  suited  to  the 
work  of  the  professional  judge,  whose  time  is  limited,  it  is 
especially  instructive  in  the  case  of  students. 

Reasons  for  making  comparative  placings  of  mutton 
sheep.  Professional  judges  give  reasons  or  not  as  they  de- 
sire, in  connection  with  their  placings.  Students,  however, 
judging  under  instructors,  are  expected  to  give  logical  rea- 
sons for  their  placings.  If  one  is  to  give  written  reasons, 
usually  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  is  allowed  for  this  pur- 
pose, while  only  about  three  minutes  are  allowed  for  oral 
reasons.  In  either  case  the  student  is  to  state  briefly  in  a 
systematic  way  the  main  reasons  influencing  his  decision. 
As  illustrative  of  student  judging,  the  following  is  given  as 
an  example  of  written  reasons  by  a  well-known  animal  hus- 
bandry teacher,  who  submitted  them  in  class  work  to  the 
author  when  competing  for  a  place  on  the  students'  Inter- 
national Live  Stock  Judging  Team.  Four  Southdown  ewes 
were  judged,  and  this  paper  furnishes  a  good  example  of 
reasons  in  written  form. 

"Reasons  for  placing  No.  797  first  are  that  she  is  the  low- 
est set,  broadest,  deepest  and  blockiest  ewe  in  the  ring.  She 
is  especially  commendable  for  her  superior  breadth  through- 
out and  also  for  her  depth  of  twist  and  plump  leg  of  mutton. 
Her  loin  is  the  widest  in  the  lot.  She  nearest  approaches 
the  meaty  type  desired  in  the  Southdown,  and  with  it  all 
she  possesses  as  much  quality  as  any  in  the  ring.  Her  flesh 
is  the  most  uniformly  carried  of  any  of  the  four.  She  is 
open  to  some  criticism  for  a  slight  lack  of  strength  of  back 


COMPARATIVE  STUDY  OF  MUTTON  SHEEP        409 

and  for  a  fleece  that  lacks  density.  She  might  show  a  little 
more  style  also,  but  this  is  a  small  deficiency.  In  view  of 
her  greater  excellence  of  form,  type,  evenness  of  covering, 
symmetry  and  smoothness'  throughout — and  in  spite  of  the 
minor  defects  noted  above — she  rightly  deserves  first  posi- 
tion. 

*  *  Reasons  for  placing  No.  803  second,  are,  that  she  is  the 
nearest  approach  to  797  of  the  remaining  three.  She  is  not 
so  low  set,  so  deep  bodied,  nor  so  broad  of  body  nor  of  loin, 
as  is  No.  797.  She  possesses  more  style  and  a  stronger  back 
than  the  ewe  placed  first,  and  also  a  darker  colored  face, 
No.  797  being  too  light  in  the  face.  Her  deficiencies  in  form 
keep  her  in  second  place,  also  her  flesh  is  less  evenly  carried. 

"Reasons  for  placing  No.  798  third  are  that  although 
easily  superior  to  No.  810,  she  is  too  rough,  lacks  compact- 
ness, is  narrow  of  loin,  has  an  uneven  covering  of  flesh,  and 
lacks  plumpness  at  shoulder  vein  to  get  above  the  third 
position. 

"Reasons  for  placing  No.  810  last.  She  is  upstanding, 
lacks  depth  and  breadth,  has  a  pinched  hind  end,  is  cut  up 
badly  in  the  twist,  is  deficient  in  leg  of  mutton,  is  slack  in 
the  chest  and  does  not  show  Southdown  type,  having  a 
coarse  head,  wooled  like  a  Shropshire." 

A  criticism  may  be  made  of  these  reasons,  in  some  lack  of 
system,  and  for  directing  too  much  attention  to  the  deficien- 
cies of  the  second,  third  and  fourth  placings,  rather  than 
emphasizing  the  advantage  the  second  placing  has  over  the 
third,  and  the  third  over  the  fourth.  However,  for  a  state- 
ment to  be  prepared  without  notes  in  fifteen  minutes,  it 
conveys  substantial  reasons  for  placings,  and  is  a  good 
example  of  student  work. 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 

JUDGING  FEEDER  SHEEP. 

FEEDER  sheep  are  those  that  are  purchased  in  thin  flesh, 
to  be  fed  and  finished  as  fat  mutton.  When  classed  as 
prime  feeders,  they  furnish  fine  examples  of  mutton  sheep. 
However,  nearly  all  of  the  feeder  sheep  in  the  large  markets 
are  from  the  western  ranges,  and  they  contain  considerable 
blood  that  is  not  representative  of  what  has  been  described 
as  mutton  type.  Therefore,  when  one  is  purchasing  feeder 
sheep,  he  should  bear  in  mind  that  he  is  selecting  what  is 
to  be  finished  off,  when  fat,  into  a  high  class  mutton  type. 
The  feeder  sheep  should  possess  certain  essentials  if  the 
desired  finish  is  to  be  secured. 

The  conformation  of  the  feeder  sheep  should  show  a 
wide,  short  head  and  neck;  full  chest;  strong,  wide  back 
and  loin ;  long,  level  rump ;  wide  leg  of  mutton,  and  com- 
paratively short  legs.  At  time  of  purchase  this  sheep  will 
have  a  strong  frame,  full  in  its  points,  but  lean  of  flesh. 
A  deep  middle,  showing  digestive  capacity,  is  highly  im- 
portant. This  frame  is  finally  to  be  smoothed  over  and 
rounded  out  with  flesh,  presenting  quite  a  different  appear- 
ance from  that  seen  in  the  same  sheep  four  months  before. 
In  selecting  this  feeder,  one  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  es- 
sentials required  in  a  fat  animal.  In  judging  this  class, 
place  a  premium  on  size  with  quality,  consistent  with 
market  demands.  Look  for  a  low-set  type  of  lamb,  broad 
and  deep,  of  medium  length,  and  showing  strong  consti- 
tution. The  lamb  of  medium  length  promises  more  in  the 
way  of  early  maturity  than  either  the  long  or  abnormally 
short-bodied  one.  The  former  often  feeds  somewhat  slowly, 
while  the  latter  has  a  conformation  that  lacks  the  stretch 
that  goes  with  the  more  responsive,  profitable  feeder.  It 

410 


JUDGING   FEEDER   SHEEP  411 

is  desirable  to  keep  condition  in  mind,  but  the  important 
thing  is  to  secure  feeders  that  are  not  too  thin,  and  will 
respond  to  feed  readily.  Uniformity  in  the  character  of 
feeder  sheep  is  important,  for  it  should  show  the  influence 
of  improved  blood  as  expressed  in  quality  and  conforma- 
tion. Sheep  of  uniform  type  and  character  fetch  a  higher 
price  when  finished  than  does  a  mixed  lot  showing  varia- 
tion in  character  and  breeding.  The  wool  on  feeder  sheep 
should  meet  the  necessary  requirements  as  to  quality,  but 
the  quantity  and  condition  will  naturally  be  affected  by 
feeding. 


CHARTER  XXXVIII. 

JUDGING  THE  MERINO  OF  THE  AMERICAN  OR 
CLASS  A  TYPE. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  MERINO  SHEEP. 

A  classification  of  Merino  sheep  according  to  type,  was 

first  made  public  in  1893  at  the  World's  Columbian  Expo- 
sition. This  classification  was  based  on  the  form  of  body, 
the  prevalence  of  folds  in  the  skin,  and  the  character  of 
fleece.  Class  A  is  a  muscular  type,  tending  to  be  narrow 
of  body,  with  heavy  wrinkles  or  folds  at  neck,  breast,  hind 
flank,  hip  and  tail-head,  and  oftentimes  minor  folds  on  the 
side  and  extending  well  up  on  the  back.  Class  B  is  a 
stronger,  larger  sheep,  with  more  mutton  form,  and  carry- 
ing folds  about  the  neck  and  breast,  and  to  a  slight  extent 
about  the  hindquarters.  Class  C,  in  its  ideal  form,  is  a 
smooth-bodied  mutton  type,  with  no  folds.  However,  one 
frequently  sees  Class  C  sheep  at  the  shows,  with  one  or  two 
folds  at  the  neck.  The  fleece  is  shortest  in  Class  A  and 


Fig.  225. — The  three  classes  of  Merino  sheep :  A  on  right,  B  in  center,  and 

C  on  left. 

412 


THE   MERINO   OF   THE   AMERICAN   TYPE 


413 


longest  in  Class  C,  while  the  densest,  heaviest  fleeces  have 
been  ])  rod  need  by  Class  A  sheep.  Classes  A  and  B  so 
closely  approach  each  other  in  appearance,  when  we  con- 
sider variation  within  the  class,  that  at  the  more  important 
shows,  where  these  Merino  classes  are  recognized,  examples 


Fig.  226. — A  Type  Merino  ram,  "Don's  Champion,"  owned  by  the  late  J.  P. 
Ray  of  New  York.     (Photo    by  courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 

of  each  may  be  in  the  same  ring.  In  a  similar  manner, 
sheep  of  B  and  C  classes  sometimes  are  found  in  the  same 
ring.  If  a  judge  knows  his  business,  he  sees  that  the  sheep 
out  of  their  class  are  sent  back  to  their  pens. 

The  Merino  of  Class  A  type,  very  generally  called  the 
American  Merino,  is  not  common  to-day  in  America.  For 
fully  three-fourths  of  a  century  wrinkly  Merinos  were  the 
rule  and  not  the  exception  in  this  country.  However,  mut- 


414  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

ton  character  has  been  steadily  growing  in  favor,  with  a 
constantly  increasing  prejudice  against  the  lean,  muscular 
sheep,  covered  with  folds,  so  difficult  to  shear.  Conse- 
quently at  the  present  day,  Merinos  of  the  A  type  are 
rarely  seen,  and  are  in  very  limited  demand.  For  this 
reason  but  brief  consideration  is  given  this  type. 

A  scale  of  points  for  the  American  Merino,  generally 
satisfactory  in  character,  does  not  seem  to  exist.  A  number 
of  Merino  sheep  associations  have  published  scales  of  points 
for  sheep  of  this  type,  but  they  have  not  been  logically  ar- 
ranged and  made  no  satisfactory  measure  of  values.  There- 
fore, the  author  has  drawn  up  the  scale  of  points  on  page  415 
as  applicable  to  the  American  or  Class  A  Merino.  This, 
as  here  presented,  has  been  submitted  to  some  of  the  best- 
known  and  most  intelligent  breeders  of  this  type  of  sheep 
in  America. 

The  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  American  Merino 
include  a  number  of  features  limited  to  this  type.  The  body 
is  lean  and  muscular,  sharp  over  the  withers,  narrow  of 
back  from  a  mutton  standpoint,  ribs  lacking  in  arch,  and 
hindquarters  long,  but  tending  to  be  narrow  and  droopy, 
with  long,  lean  thighs.  The  legs  tend  to  come  close  together 
at  knee  and  hock,  with  the  toes  pointing  out.  The  body  is 
densely  covered  with  the  finest  grade  of  wool,  excepting 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  face  and  muzzle,  and  parts  of  legs, 
where  a  fine,  silky,  white  hair  occurs.  Folds  or  wrinkles  in 
the  skin  of  nose,  neck,  brisket,  shoulders,  flanks,  sides,  rump 
and  thighs,  give  this  type  of  Merino  a  very  striking  appear- 
ance, either  with  or  without  the  fleece.  Expert  judges  of 
American  Merinoes  rarely  examine  the  form  other  than  by 
use  of  the  eye.  The  hand  is  used  only  to  feel  of  the  fleece,  to 
part  the  locks  and  to  note  the  various  conditions  associ- 
ated with  the  wool.  In  judging,  no  attention  is  paid  to 
mutton  condition,  excepting  as  indicating  vigorous  condi- 
tion of  health,  which  the  judge  notes  in  the  healthy,  pink 
condition  of  skin  as  he  examines  the  fleece.  The  weight 
of  the  ram  rarely  attains  150  pounds  at  maturity,  but  this 


THE    MERINO    OF    THE    AMERICAN    TYPE  415 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  AMERICAN  MERINO. 

Standard  of    Score  of 

SCALE   OF   POINTS  Perfect          Sheep 

Score         Studied 

Age Number  of  permanent  incisors .... 

A — GENERAL  APPEARANCE,    16  Points: 

Weight,    score   according   to   age,    mature   males    !."><) 

Ibs.,    females    100   Ibs 2  .... 

Form,  low  set,  deep  bodied,  symmetrical,  with  folds 

on   neck,    shoulders,   flanks,   rump,    thighs    .  .  0  .... 

Quality,  bone  and  wool  fine,  skin  pink 8  .... 

II— HEAD  AND  NECK,   7  Points: 

Muzzle,  broad,  wrinkled,  lips  thin,  mouth  and  nos- 
trils good  size 1  .... 

Eyes,  large,  bright,  placid,  not  enclosed  by   folds    .  .         1  .... 

Pace,  short,  features  well  denned       1  .... 

Forehead,  broad  and  full 1  .... 

Ears,  small,  fine,  covered  with  fine  white  hair    .  .       .  .         1  .... 

Neck,  short  above,  long  below,  strong,  with  promi- 
nent folds '2  .... 

C— FOREQUARTERS,   9  Points: 

Shoulders,  sloping  well  into.bac.k,  not  rough,  broad, 

with  folds •_!  .... 

Breast,  of  medium  width,  deep,  showing  plenty  con- 
stitution    :;  .... 

Brisket,   carried  well  forward,    with   stiong   fold   or 

apron 2  .... 

Legs  and  feet:   straight  legs,  well  carried,  toes   short 

and  of  good  shape  with  level  soles      .  .       .  .  2  .... 

1) — BODY,  20  Points: 

Chest,  deep,  medium  wide,  comparatively  large  girth         .">  .... 

Back,  level,   long,   medium  wide         .  .         :;  .... 

Loin,  broad,  long  and  not  sagged :;  .... 

Ribs,  arched  only  moderately  deep,  close  together       .  .         3 

Flanks,  low,  giving  low,  level  underline 1 

I :— HINDQUARTERS,   10  Points: 

Hips,  smooth,  not  too  widely  separated 1  .... 

Rump,  long,  level,  wide,  carrying  light  folds   .  .       .  .         4  .... 

Thighs,  long,  muscular,  with  horizontal  folds.  .       .  .         3  .... 

Legs  and.  feet:  legs  carried  straight,  hocks  not  close, 
shanks  vertical,  toes  short,  and  of  good  shape, 

with  level  soles 2 

F— FLEECE,  43  Points: 

Folds  or  wrinkles,   very  manifest  on  neck,   brisket, 

shoulders,   flanks,   lower   sides,   rump,   thighs..      10  .... 

Quality,  fiber  very  fine  and  crimped,  uniform  in 
diameter,  free  of  hair  or  gare  on  folds,  belly 
or  legs  10  .... 

Density,  close  covering  all  over  body,  armpits,  belly 
and  legs  well  wooled,  the  fleece  compact  to  the 
hand 10  .... 

Length,   xiniform    over  body,    2i/£    inches  for  twelve 

months'   growth .  .         7  .... 

Oil,  grease  or  yolk,  abundant,  light  colored,  evenly 

distributed,   and  not  gathered  in  spots    .  .       .  .         4  .... 

Condition,  clean,  soft,  free  of  foreign  matter.  .       .  .        2  .... 

Total    points         100 


416 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


standard  is  desirable.  The  larger  type  of  rams,  with  qual- 
ity and  constitution  meet  with  most  favor.  The  form  should 
be  low  set,  with  a  depth  of  body  indicating  ample  feeding 
capacity,  and  symmetrical  in  proportions.  The  head  should 

be     quite    covered 

with  a  heavy  cap 
of  wool,  excepting 
for  a  space  half- 
way up  from  nos- 
trils to  eye,  which 
is  covered  with 
fine,  silky  hair.  The 
head  covering 
should  be  compact 
and  uniform  in 
character  of  wool. 
Most  Merino  rams 
have  heavy  horns, 
which  twist  around 

Fig.  227. — "The  head  should  be  quite  covered 

with  a  heavy  cap  of  wool."  about  one  ana  one- 

half  times  in  cork- 
screw form,  with  the  tips  pointing  forward.  The 
ewes  are  free  of  horns,  while  polled  rams  are  not  rare. 
The  Merino  head  crowned  with  a  fine  pair  of  well-set,  widely 
turned  horns,  rooted  in  a  heavy  cap  of  wool,  the  muzzle 
broad  and  slightly  arched,  and  covered  with  silky  hair 
raised  in  slight  wrinkles,  presents  a  strong  and  dignified 
appearance.  The  eyes  are  often  quite  hidden  by  the  fleece, 
and  frequently  small  folds  of  skin  so  encroach  on  the  eyes 
that  it  is  necessary  to  cut  them  away  that  the  sight  be  not 
obstructed.  The  ears  should  be  small  and  covered  with 
'  *  furry  hair, ' '  and  should  be  rather  widely  separated.  The 
back  of  the  American  Merino  often  appears  narrow  and 
lacking  in  level  carriage.  Narrow,  peaked  rumps  are  also 
very  common  with  this  type,  these  seeming  to  be  associated 
with  crooked  hind  legs  that  touch  at  the  hocks  and  turn  out 
widely  at  the  toes. 


THE   MERINO   OF   THE   AMERICAN   TYPE  417 

The  folds  on  the  American  Merino  are  most  highly  devel- 
oped on  the  lamb,  and  with  age  some  of  these  are  more  or 
less  outgrown.  A  lamb  that  appears  to  be  of  the  A  type, 
at  maturity,  may  belong  in  the  B  class.  According  to  an 
expert  breeder l  the  prevailing  fashion  is  to  have  from 
three  to  five  heavy  folds  on  the  neck,  not  large  on  the 
upper,  but  large  on  the  under  side;  two  or  three  short  folds 
on  and  immediately  back  of  each  elbow  or  arm ;  fine,  thick 


Fig.  228. — "The  folds  on  the  American  Merino  are  most  highly  developed." 

wrinkles  running  down  the  sides,  but  not  extending  over 
the  back.  "Wrinkles  occur  across  the  hips,  sometimes  from 
the  tail  in  the  direction  of  the  stifle,  and  sometimes  at  right 
angles  with  them.  Folds  occur  around  the  tail  to  give  it  a 
wide  appearance,  and  also  across  the  thigh,  adding  to  the 
depth  of  flank.  These  large  folds  are  indications  of  heavy 
fleeces.  The  modern  tendency  is  away  from  the  heavy 
folds  of  twenty  years  ago,  yet  in  spite  of  that,  the  best 

1  Special  report  on  the  History  and  Present  Condition  of  the  Sheep  Industry 
in  the  United  States,  1892,  p.  315. 


418 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


examples  of  American  Merinoes  show  the  folds  in  striking 
degree. 

The  Merino  of  the  B  type  class,  as  has  already  been  ex- 
plained, carries  folds  at  the  neck  and  breast,  and  to  some 
extent  at  the  hindquarters.  B  type  sheep  are  larger  than 
those  of  the  A  type,  are  thicker  and  show  more  mutton 
form,  and  have  a  longer  and  somewhat  coarser  wool  staple. 


Fig.   229.— "These  large  folds  are  indications   of  heavy  fleeces." 

In  this  type  the  value  of  mutton  form  is  given  some  consid- 
eration. Further,  in  order  to  secure  a  heavy-weighing  fleece 
of  desirable  length  on  a  Merino  with  mutton  tendency,  it  is 
recognized  that  more  or  less  folds  are  essential.  The  per- 
fectly smooth  C  type  sheep,  that  naturally  has  a  somewhat 
open  fleece,  will  not  meet  this  requirement.  Rams  of  the 
B  type  are  the  ones  most  commonly  used  in  Merino  flocks 
of  to-day,  and  mated  with  the  ewes  of  smooth  body  and 


THE   MERINO  OF   THE   AMERICAN   TYPE  419 

mutton  form,  they  play  an  important  part  in  improving 
the  wool-producing-  value  of  the  flock,  without  necessarily 
reducing  the  mutton  value.  As  the  folds  are  evidence  of 
compactness  of  fleece,  so  we  must  recognize  the  necessity 
of  at  least  some  folds  in  the  stud  flock  if  the  average  Me- 
rino fleece  is  to  be  maintained  on  a  high  standard.  There- 
fore, in  the  B  type  sheep,  we  must  possess  a  combination 
of  the  most  valuable  fleece  features  of  the  A  type  with  the 
size  and  mutton  qualities  of  the  C  type. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

JUDGING  THE  MUTTON  MERINO  OR  CLASS  0  TYPE. 

The  modern  trend  in  breeding  Merino  sheep,  is  to  pro- 
duce the  smooth-bodied  type,  free  of  folds,  excepting  in 
slight  degree  on  the  neck.  Years  ago  Merino  breeders, 
especially  in  eastern  Ohio  and  western  Pennsylvania,  rec- 
ognized that  they  must  produce  a  type  of  sheep  that  would 
have  mutton  as  well  as  wool  values.  In  consequence  of 
this  feeling,  breeders  began  to  select  breeding  stock  that 
was  rather  free  of  folds,  with  a  tendency  to  carry  consid- 
erable flesh.  This  resulted  in  establishing  what  is  generally 
known  as  the  Delaine  Merino.  It  is  the  common  type  of 
smooth-bodied  Merino  seen  in  America,  and,  while  produc- 
ing a  fine  or  Merino  wool,  also  makes  a  most  excellent 
carcass.  While  not  technically  a  Delaine,  the  Rambouillet 
is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  of  this  class.  In  fact,  on  one 
occasion  at  the  Ohio  State  Fair,  several  Rambouillet  ewes 
of  German  breeding  were  exhibited  in  a  Delaine  class  by 
one  of  the  best-known  American  Rambouillet  breeders. 
This  was  not  entirely  satisfactory  to  all  concerned,  but  that 
such  a  thing  were  possible  shows  that  the  Rambouillet 
breeder  expected  his  sheep  to  be  judged  on  a  Delaine  basis. 
A  world  movement  toward  the  smooth-bodied,  Delaine  type 
of  fine-wooled  sheep  is  now  taking  place,  for  two  very  dis- 
tinct reasons,  one  being  the  greatly  increased  demand  for 
mutton  as  well  as  fleece,  the  other  the  difficulty  in  shear- 
ing sheep  of  the  A  type  with  heavy  folds.  Even  in  Aus- 
tralia, long  the  home  of  the  wrinkly  Merino  of  extreme  de- 
velopment, the  class  C  sheep  is  coming  into  great  popu- 
larity. 

420 


MERINO  OF  CLASS  C  TYPE  421 

A  scale  of  points  for  the  Delaine  Merino,  or  Class  C 
type,  applies  to  what  might  be  termed  the  dual-purpose 
sheep.  In  conformation  the  Class  C  type  lacks  the  extreme 
thickness  and  heavy  fleshing  of  the  mutton  type,  but  we  find 
a  fleece  much  superior  in  quality  to  that  of  the  mutton 
breeds.  In  discussing  the  following  scale  of  points,  in  view 
of  the  detailed  consideration  of  conformation  given  the  mut- 
ton type,  only  the  essentials  of  dual-purpose  form  will  be  re- 
ferred to  here.  The  subject  of  fleece,  however,  justifies 
discussion  in  some  detail. 

SCORE  CARD  FOR  DELAINE  OR  C  TYPE  MERINO. 

Standard  of  Score  of 

SCALE   OF  POINTS                                         Perfect  Sheep 

Score  Studied 

Age Number  of  permanent  incisors .... 

A— GENERAL  APPEARANCE,   24  Points: 

Weight,   score  according  to  age.     Mature  rams   150 

Ibs.,   ewes   125   Ibs 3  .... 

Porm,  low,  compact,  symmetrical,  uniformly  covered 

with    flesh 7  .... 

Quality,  bone  and  wool  fine,  skin  pink  and  healthy        7  .... 

Condition,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,    of  moderate 

thickness         7  .... 


B— HEAD  AND  NECK,  7  Points: 

Muzzle,   broad;    mouth  and  nostrils  good   size;    lips 

thin         1 

Eyes,   bright,   of  good   size,   placid 1 

Face,  short,  broad  between  eyes        1 

Forehead,    broad 1 

Ears,  medium  to  small,  set  wide  apart,  covered  with 

silky  hair 1 

Neck,   short   on  top,   long  below,   smoothly  attached  2 

C — FOREQUARTERS,  12  Points: 

Shoulders,  well  placed        2 

Breast,   deep  and  medium  thick        5 

Brisket,    carried   well    forward,   with    some    breadth 

and  fold  or  apron        2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  well  set,  arm  full, 
shank  smooth,  feet  of  good  horn,  and  pointing 
straight  forward  3 

D— BODY,  15  Points: 

Chest,  broad,  deep,   full  behind  shoulders        .  .       .  .  5 

Back,  straight  and  medium  wide        3 

Loin,  strong  and  muscular 3 

Ribs,  well  sprung  and  deep        3 

Flanks,  low,  making  straight  underline 1 


422  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Standard  of  Score  of 

SCALE   OF  POINTS                                         Perfect  Sheep 

Score  Studied 
E — HINDQUARTERS,   13  Points: 

Hips,  smooth,  not  too  wide  apart .... 

Rump,  long,  level,  moderately  wide 5  .... 

Thighs,   muscular  to  plumpness         3  .... 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  stifle  full;  feet  of  good 

horn,   and  pointing  straight   forward         ..       ..         3  .... 

F — WOOL,  29  Points: 

Quality,  staple  fine,  with  close  and  uniform  crimp, 

free  of  weak  fiber,  hair  or  gare 10  .... 

Density,   compact  all  over  body         7  .... 

Length  of  staple  uniform,  at  least  2a/&  inches  for 

twelve  months 7  .... 

Condition,  rich  and  soft  in  handling,  with  moderate 
amount  of  well  distributed  oil ;  free  of  foreign 
matter 5  .... 

Total  points 100  .... 


The  general  appearance  of  the  Class  C  Merino  is  that 
of  a  sheep  lacking  the  thickness  of  mutton  type,  slightly 
longer  of  leg  and  neck,  with  a  compact  fleece  free  of  folds, 
excepting  in  slight  degree  about  the  neck.  The  tendency 
is  to  endeavor  to  secure  as  thick  and  low  set  a  form  as  pos- 
sible, and  some  sheep  of  this  class  have  been  shown  that 
closely  resembled  Southdown  or  Shropshire  in  general 
form.  The  judges  as  a  rule  look  with  much  favor  on  such 
conformation.  The  condition,  when  prime,  should  show  a 
moderate  and  uniform  thickness  of  firm  flesh,  not  carried 
to  an  extreme.  The  popularity  of  the  C  type  as  a  killer, 
is  due  to  the  more  moderate  amount  of  external  fat  with 
less  waste  of  this  material  than  prevails  with  mutton  sheep. 
The  judge,  however,  should  emphasize  smoothness,  firmness 
and  uniformity  of  fleshing. 

The  head  and  neck  of  the  Class  C  Merino  present  less 
thickness  and  shortness  as  a  rule  than  are  shown  by  the 
mutton  type.  The  head  should  show  the  same  character- 
istics, however,  desired  in  the  mutton  sheep,  but  the  neck 
may  not  be  so  short  and  thick.  Judges  will  naturally  favor 
the  short  and  muscular  neck  that  is  smoothly  blended  at 
the  shoulders.  The  one  or  two  folds  often  seen  on  the 


MERINO  OF   CLASS  C  TYPE 


423 


Fig.  230. — "Some  sheep  of  the  Class  (C)  have  been  shown  that  closely 
resemble  Southdown  or  Shropshire  in  general  form." 


neck  make  this  part  appear  longer  than  it  really  is.  Two 
folds  are  objectionable  in  the  wether,  but  in  the  breeding 
ram  these  furnish  evidence  of  possible  transmission  of  the 
heavy  fleece,  and  so  should  not  be  discriminated  against. 
The  forequarters  of  the  Class  C  Merino  frequently  show 
prominence  of  shoulder,  narrowness  of  breast  and  too  much 
length  of  leg.  The  shoulders  should  be  well  placed,  sloping 
nicely  to  the  back  and  being  smoothly  covered  with  a  mod- 
erate thickness  of  flesh.  A  reasonable  fullness  or  thickness 
of  breast  and  brisket,  with  some  prominence  to  each,  should 
be  sought.  A  large  fold  or  apron  covers  the  brisket  and 
gives  it  prominence.  Excess  of  fold  here  is  not  associated 
with  strong  mutton  conformation.  The  legs  should  be  fairly 
wide  apart  and  straight,  the  toes  pointing  directly  forward. 


424 


JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 


Often  the  knees  come  quite  close  together,  with  the  feet 
widely  separated  and  pointing  out,  a  very  weak  position. 
The  body  of  the  Class  C  Merino  presents  more  round- 
ness or  curve  on  the  upper  part  of  rib  than  the  mutton 
sheep,  with  corresponding  lack  of  width  of  back.  This  con- 
formation is  essentially  a  dual-purpose  feature.  If  the  rib 
carries  sufficient  spring  and  depth,  the  chest  will  show  the 


Fig.   231. — "A   large  fold   or  apron   covers  the  brisket   and  gives   it 
prominence." 

requisite  fullness,  and  the  body  as  a  whole  will  exhibit 
ample  digestive  capacity.  A  fullness  at  front  and  hind 
flank  should  be  sought  and  is  highly  desirable,  as  evidence 
both  of  capacity  and  of  constitution.  The  fleshing  over  the 
frame  will  be  less  than  on  the  true  mutton  form  and,  as 
a  rule,  will  not  present  the  depth  of  covering  that  is  found 
in  the  thicker  fleshed  sort. 

The  hindquarters  of  the  Class  C  Merino  lack  the  square- 
ness most  characteristic  of  mutton  form.  The  rump  should 
be  long,  moderately  wide  and  level.  The  thighs  usually 


MERINO   OF   CLASS   C   TYPE 


are  muscular  rather  than  thick  and  fleshy,  and  with  a 
medium  depth  or  fullness  of  twist.  While  the  leg  of 
mutton  produced  here  is  quite  acceptable  in  the  trade,  it 
does  not  furnish  the  depth  of  cut  that  is  found  in  the  ideal 
mutton  type,  the  bone  being  less  heavily  fleshed  on  every 
side.  This  being  characteristic  of  the  type,  it  is  not  rea- 


m 


Fig.  232. — "The  hindquarters  of  the  Class  C  Merino  (on  the  left)  lack  the 
squareness  most  characteristic  of  the  mutton  form." 

sonable  for  the  judge  to  expect  the  thickest  mutton  con- 
formation in  this  regard.  The  conformation  of  the  hind 
legs  of  the  C  type  is  not  so  frequently  bad  as  with  A 
type,  but  Merino-like,  they  naturally  tend  to  hock  in  and 
toe  out.  The  judge  should  emphasize  a  proper  placing  of 
legs  and  feet,  either  from  rear  or  side  view,  as  essential 
in  mutton  conformation.  The  closer  the  hocks  come  to- 
gether, the  thinner  the  thighs  as  a  rule,  and  the  less  de- 
veloped the  twist. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

THE  FLEECE  AND  ITS  EXAMINATION. 

The  quality  of  wool  fiber  is  shown  in  its  degree  of  fine- 
ness, in  its  crimp,  its  uniformity  through  the  fleece,  and  its 
freedom  from  kemp  or  gare.  Wool  differs  greatly  in  its 
fineness,  of  which  Hawkesworth  gives  twelve  different  de- 
grees.1 The  finest  grades  are  produced  by  the  Merino,  and 
measurements  have  been  made  by  various  persons  showing 
a  diameter  of  fiber  of  over  one  two-thousandths  (%ooo)  °f 
an  inch.  However,  a  diameter  of  one-thousandth  of  an 
inch  is  fine.  The  fiber  of  the  long  wool  such  as  Cotswold, 
that  measures  a  diameter  of  one  four-hundredth  of  an  inch, 

represents  the 
coarsest  grade.  The 
wool  on  the-  same 
sluvp  varies  in  de- 
gree of  fineness. 
The  finest  wool  is 
found  over  the 
shoulder  and  side, 
and  the  coarsest 
over  the  hindquar- 
ter,  especially  the 
thigh,  and  on  the 
belly. 

The  fleece  refers 
to  the  entire  cover- 
ing of  wool  on  the 
sheep  and  this  con- 
sists of  locks  or 

Fig.  233. — "The  finest  wool  is  found  over  the  ,, 

shoulder  and  side."  groups       Ol 

1  Australian  Sheep  and  Wool,  1906,  p.  218. 


426 


THE   FLEECE   AND   ITS   EXAMINATION 


427 


that  naturally  separate  by  breaks  in  the  fleece.  To  examine 
the  degree  of  fineness,  one  should  begin  at  the  side  of  the 
neck,  and  inspect  the  fleece,  separating  to  the  skin  the  locks 
at  various  points,  so  that  the  fiber  can  be  easily  compared 
and  studied.  The  judge  should  look  for  a  fleece  uniform  in 
quality  with  as  lit- 
tle variation  as  pos- 
sible in  fineness, 
with  no  great  dif- 
ference between  the 
front  and  hind- 
quarter  wool.  Soft- 
ness is  a  valued 
feature.  A  wool  is 
said  to  be  soft  when 
it  has  a  smooth  and 
yielding  touch  to 
the  hand.  This  is 
a  characteristic  of 
the  fleece  as  a 
whole,  rather  than 
of  a  single  fiber. 

"When  the  climate  is  both  moist  and  bracing,  wools  have  a 
better,  softer  touch,  than  where  produced  in  a  dry  and 
trying  climate. 

The  crimp  of  wool  is  the  name  applied  to  the  serration 
of  the  fiber.  Perhaps  the  common  saw-tooth  shape  illus- 
trates this.  The  crimp,  however,  varies  from  the  close,  sharp 
wave  in  the  Merino,  to  the  long,  wavy  one  seen  in  the  long 
wool  breeds.  Hawkesworth  states2  that  "in  superior  Me- 
rino wool  there  are  24  to  30  crimps  to  the  inch,  and  some- 
times more.  In  the  English  breeds,  the  Southdown,  which 
is  the  finest,  contains  14  to  18  crimps  per  inch;  medium 
wool  from  11  to  14,  while  the  long,  coarse  Lincoln  staple 
has  but  two  or  three  serrations  to  the  inch/'  Crimp  is  an 
especially  striking  feature  of  Merino  wool,  and  is  a  true 

3  Australian  Sheep  and  Wool,  1906,  p.  219. 


Fig.  234. — "The  coarsest  over  the  hindquarter, 
especially  the  thigh  and  belly." 


428  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

indication  of  quality.  Crimp  is  also  associated  with  great 
elasticity.  Therefore,  in  judging  the  Merino,  one  should 
give  due  recognition  to  the  presence  of  crimp  as  an  impor- 
tant feature  of  quality.  Oftentimes  crimp  is  so  pronounced 
that  it  is  manifest  on  the  exterior  of  the  fleece,  although  it 
is  always  seen  best  by  parting  the  locks. 

Kemp  or  gare  are  animal  fibers  found  in  wool  that  are 
distinctly  objectionable  to  the  woolen  cloth  trade.  Kemp 
is  a  hard,  coarse  hair  that  is  found  much  more  in  some 
sheep  than  others,  and  more  on  one  part  of  the  body  than 
another.  Being  a  hard  hair,  kemp  will  not  take  dyes  as 
will  wool,  so  that  when  in  the  cloth,  it  lacks  the  color  and 
character  necessary  for  uniform  coloring  of  fabric.  Kemp 
is  most  often  found  about  the  head  or  thighs,  and  may  be 
either  white  or  black  in  color.  A  kempy  fleece  is  very  ob- 
jectionable. The  term  gare  has  been  used  more  or  less  by 
American  sheep  men,  but  no  doubt  many  have  had  kemp 
in  mind  as  the  same  thing.  Hawkesworth  defines3  kemp 
as  a  hard,  very  brittle,  opaque  hair,  resembling  a  piece  of 
common  cotton  thread,  while  gare  possesses  a  glossy, 
straight  surface,  and  is  devoid  of  softness,  elasticity  and 
crimpiness. 

The  density  of  fleece  relates  to  the  abundance  of  the 
wool  over  the  body.  There  is  much  difference  in  density 
of  fleece  in  sheep  of  the  different  breeds,  and  also  among 
individuals.  From  a  breed  point  of  view  the  Merino  has 
much  the  densest  fleece,  with  the  long  wools  the  least  dense. 
On  a  square  inch  of  Merino  skin  may  be  found  60,000  wool 
fibers,  which  indicates  a  very  dense  fleece.  The  density  is 
manifested  by  the  closeness  with  which  the  locks  are  packed 
together,  and  the  compact  feeling  to  the  touch  when  the 
hand  grasps  the  fleece.  A  dense  fleece  does  not  allow  for- 
eign matter  to  gather  easily  between  the  locks,  a  distinct 
argument  in  favor  of  density.  The  most  important  argu- 
ment in  behalf  of  this  characteristic,  however,  is  its  rela- 
tionship to  heavy  yield  of  wool,  for  the  greater  the  density, 

3  Australian  Sheep  and  Wool,  1906,  p.  237. 


E  FLEECE  AND  ITS  TOAMINATION 


429 


other  things  being  equal,  the  heavier  the  yield.  If  the 
wool  opens  freely,  it  shows  lack  of  density.  One  quickly 
notices  differences  in  density  by  the  grasp  of  the  hand  of 
the  fleece  of  different  sheep,  and,  even  by  the  eye,  one  may 


Fig.  235. — "One  quickly  notices  the  differences  in  density  by  tbe  grasp  of 
the  hand  of  the  fleece  of  different  sheep." 

note  the  much  greater  prevalence  of  open  locks  in  the  tops 
of  some  sheep  than  in  others. 

Length  of  fleece  or  staple  varies  according  to  type  or 
breed  of  sheep,  and  also  as  to  the  portion  of  the  body  on 
which  it  is  produced.  The  Merino  has  a  short  fleece,  and 
two  and  one-half  inches  is  quite  a  standard  length  for  a 
year's  growth.  Sheep  of  the  medium  wool  class,  such  as 
the  Shropshire,  easily  produce  a  length  of  three  or  four 


430 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


Fig.  236. — "The  fleece  of  the  long  wool  breeds 
often  exceeds  six  inches  in  twelve  months' 
growth." 


inches,  while  the  fleece  of  the  long  wool  breeds  often  ex- 

ceeds  six  inches  in 

twelve  months' 
growth.  It  is  quite 
important  that  the 
staple  be  uniform 
in  length,  although 
in  the  vicinity  of 
the  shoulder  the 
wool  is  quite  the 
longest  of  the  en- 
tire fleece. 

The  oil  or  yolk. 
Associated  with  the 
root  of  the  wool 
fiber  are  minute  oil 
glands.  From  these 
the  oil  passes  to 

the  base  of  the  fiber,  and  then  works  up  along  over  the 
scales  until  it  reaches  the  end,  lubricating  and  softening 
the  wool.  Some  sheep,  such  as  the  American  Merino,  pro- 
duce a  great  deal  of  oil,  which  accumulates  on  the  outside  of 
the  fleece,  where,  when  mixed  with  dust  and  dirt,  it  appears 
almost  as  a  dirty,  black,  gummy  blanket.  There  is  consid- 
erable difference  in  the  amount  and  character  of  this  oil. 
It  should  be  rather  colorless,  but  is  frequently  of  creamy 
or  greenish  tint.  However,  the  relationship  of  color  to 
value  is  at  present  unknown.  It  is  more  abundant  on  the 
fine  wool  breeds,  which  may  scour  off  60  per  cent  ^r  a  ore 
oil  and  dirt,  than  on  those  with  more  open  and  Coarse 
fleece,  which  may  shrink  only  25  per  cent  in  scour- 
ing. It  is  also  found  more  on  the  front  than  on  the  hind 
part  of  the  body.  If  the  fibers  are  uniformly  oiled,  there 
is  no  danger  of  their  becoming  entangled  or  cotted.  Some- 
times oil  gathers  in  flakes  within  the  fleece,  which  is  unde- 
sirable, as  indicating  uneven  strength  of  fiber.  The  oil 
in  the  fleece  is  important,  as  imparting  durability,  softness 


THE   FLEECE  AND   ITS  EXAMINATION  431 

and  brilliancy.  A  considerable  amount  of  oil  is  highly  de- 
sirable in  fine-wooled  fleeces,  and  the  point  has  been  made4 
that  profitable  fleece  cannot  be  raised  without  a  hirgr 
amount  of  oil,  that  it  promotes  the  growth  of  the  wool, 
and  that  those  who  have  tried  to  dispense  with  it  or  ma- 
terially reduce  it  in  their  flocks,  have  met  with  serious  loss 
of  wool  and  a  deterioration  of  strength,  fineness  and  even- 
ness of  fleece.  A  deficiency  of  oil  causes  the  staple  to  be 
dry,  harsh  and  weak,  and  the  tendency  will  be  to  thinness 
and  coarseness  of  fiber.  In  view  of  these  facts,  it  is  im- 
portant to  emphasize  an  abundance  of  oil,  especially  with 
the  fine  wool  classes.  Even  with  the  mutton  type  the  judge 
should  seek  for  an  abundant  and  uniform  distribution  of 
oil  through  the  fleece. 

The  condition  of  the  wool  refers  to  the  amount,  char- 
acter and  distribution  of  the  oil  in  the  fleece,  and  the  way 
the  wool  responds  when  taken  in  the  hand.  Condition 
also  relates  to  the  presence  of  foreign  matter,  such  as  chaff, 
seeds,  etc.,  and  also  kemp  or  gare.  Some  have  used  the  term 
"purity"  as  expressing  the  general  condition  and  character 
of  fleece. 

An  examination  of  the  fleece  should  be  made  system- 
atically. Commencing  at  the  head,  and  gradually  working 
toward  the  hindquarters,  the  judge  should  part  the  fleece 
on  the  neck,  shoulder,  side,  thigh,  and  note  its  quality, 
length,  density,  presence  of  oil  and  condition.  This  is 
easily  done  by  standing  at  one  side  of  the  animal  and  ex- 
amining the  fleece  along  the  opposite  side.  In  case  of  breed- 
ing sheep  having  wool  over  the  forehead,  then  this  part 
should  be  examined  to  note  the  character  of  head  covering. 
At  this  point  very  coarse  wool,  or  even  hair,  is  often  found, 
especially  at  the  more  central  point.  The  back  wool  may 
be  examined,  but  this  should  be  done  with  much  care,  as 
it  is  quite  desirable  to  keep  this  covering  closed  as  much  as 
possible,  to  avoid  establishing  openings  for  chaff,  etc.  Care- 

*  Special  Report  on  the  History  and  Present  Condition  of  the  Sheep  Industry 
of  the  United  States,  1892,  p.  314. 


432 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


Fig.  237. — "Careful  inspection  should  be  made  over  the  belly  and  about  the 
armpits,  and  along  the  inside  of  the  legs." 

ful  inspection  should  be  made  over  the  belly  and  about 
the  armpits,  and  along  the  inside  of  the  legs,  especially  to 
note  the  extent  and  quality  of  covering.  Merino  breeders 
attach  more  importance  to  this  underside  inspection  than 
do  owners  of  mutton  sheep.  During  the  entire  process  of 
examination,  break  the  fleece  apart  to  the  skin  only  be- 
tween natural  locks,  using  little  force.  There  is  no  good 
excuse  for  breaking  apart  an  individual  lock.  It  is  a 
matter  of  importance  to  examine  the  fleece  without  crushing 
or  flattening  it  out  any  more  than  is  necessary  for  thorough 
inspection. 


CHAPTER  XLI. 

JUDGING  BREEDING  SHEEP. 

IN  the  consideration  of  the  form  and  function  of  the 
sheep,  up  to  this  point  but  little  reference  has  been  made 
to  breeding  animals.  Within  a  certain  breed  or  class,  there 
are  many  things  in  common  among  non-breeding  and  breed- 
ing stock.  However,  the  latter  possess  certain  sexual  char- 
acteristics and  features  that  are  peculiar  to  breeding  ani- 
mals, and  which  breeders  universally  recognize  as  of  vital 
importance.  Therefore,  while  judging  breeding  stock,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  these  things  in  mind.  Judges  may 
differ  somewhat  in  their  estimates  of  relative  values,  but 
all  will  agree  on  the  necessity  of  recognition  of  certain 
features  as  requiring  special  emphasis  in  selecting  or  judg- 
ing breeding  animals.  Each  sex  must  receive  special  con- 
sideration, for  males  and  females  cannot  be  consistently 
judged  in  the  same  class. 

(A)— JUDGING  THE  RAM. 

The  sex  character  of  the  ram  is  of  the  first  importance. 
This  is  especially  seen  in  the  head,  neck,  withers,  sexual 
organs,  fleece  and  general  conformation.  The  head  should 
be  comparatively  large,  short,  strong  and  wide  over  the 
nose,  broad  and  full  at  the  forehead,  and  in  case  of  the 
horned  breeds,  with  large,  strong  horns  of  excellent  quality. 
One  of  the  most  distinctive  features  of  the  male  is  the  thick- 
ness of  nose,  with  a  slightly  arched  or  Roman  character. 
Frequently  slight  wrinkles  are  found  here ;  in  fact  this  is 
a  requisite  character  of  the  Merino  male.  This  is  not  so 
marked  in  the  young  males,  becoming  more  and  more  ap- 
parent with  maturity.  The  ears  of  the  males  are  also 
larger  and  thicker  than  on  females  or  non-breeding  sheep. 
The  ram  should  carry  his  head  in  bold,  upstanding  fashion, 

433 


434 


JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 


as  becoming  a  herd  leader,  with  his  sex  plainly  manifested. 
A  ram  lacking  in  this  respect  should  be  severely  discrimi- 
nated against  by  the  judge.  Too  much  coarseness  of  head  is 
to  be  avoided,  as  suggesting  a  coarse  type  of  sire.  The 
neck  should  be  strong  and  muscular,  with  some  thickness 
on  top.  A  grasp  of  the  neckr  where  joining  head  and 
shoulders,  will  reveal  to  the  hand  the  sexual  character 
there.  A  strong  neck  should  join  bold  and  somewhat  prom- 


Fig.   238. — "The  head   should  be  comparatively  large,   short,   strong  and 
wide  over  the  nose,  broad  and  full  at  the  forehead." 

inent  withers,  these  two  indicating  strength  of  constitution. 
More  prominence  of  withers  is  expected  with  rams  of  Me- 
rino breeding  than  the  mutton  class,  but  even  here  this 
character  should  be  somewhat  prominent,  though  when  in 
condition,  smoothly  covered.  The  testicles  of  the  ram 
should  consist  of  a  pair  of  glands  uniformly  developed  and 
strongly  held  within  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  purse 
or  sac.  It  is  important  that  the  purse  have  some  contrac- 
tion of  skin  above  the  glands,  and  that  it  be  well  defined, 


JUDGING   BREEDING   SHEEP  435 

with  a  minimum  of  condition.  A  thick,  fat  neck  of  the  tes- 
ticles is  uually  associated  with  fatty  degeneration.  A  fat 
purse  also  suggests  sterility,  and  is  a  common  char- 
acteristic of  non-breeding  rams.  The  fleece  of  the  ram 
should  be  somewhat  coarse  or  "strong,"  as  expressed 
by  the  wool  man.  A  relatively  fine  fleece  on  the  ram 
may  indicate  deficiency  of  constitution  or  femininity. 
The  general  conformation  of  the  ram  shows  fullness  and 
boldness  in  front  as  a  whole,  with  masculinity  the  predom- 
inating feature.  The  sex  character  is  also  very  manifest 
in  the  temperament,  many  rams  being  combative  and  given 
to  a  free  use  of  the  head  in  the  attempt  to  master  other 
males  in  the  flock.  Merino  rams  are  especially  given  to 
butting,  and  frequently  require  special  treatment  to  keep 
them  under  control,  such  as  blindfolding  or  placing  in  sep- 
arate pens. 

The  breeding  capacity  of  the  ram  is  of  great  importance. 
He  should  possess  the  various  necessary  qualities  of  sex, 
but,  more,  should  have  a  strength  of  back  and  depth  of 
body  that  will  be  transmitted  to  all  progeny  intended  for 
breeding  purposes.  This  quality  is  not  easily  determined 
and,  in  fact,  must  be  largely  estimated. 

The  size  of  the  ram  should  depend  upon  breed  and  class. 
Quality  is  very  essential.  Considerable  size  is  popular  with 
many,  but  is  not  a  necessity.  One  of  the  most  noted 
breeders  in  England  informed  the  writer  that  the  greatest 
success  in  breeding  in  his  flock  had  come  from  the  smaller 
rather  than  the  larger  rams.  Hawkesworth  gives  prefer- 
ence to  a  "big  good  one"  over  a  "little  good  one,"  but  con- 
siders a  ram  of  intermediate  size  will  generally  prove  the 
most  satisfactory  sire.1  In  judging,  extremes  in  size  may 
be  regarded  with  disfavor,  other  things  being  equal.  A 
large,  coarse  ram,  however,  is  subject  to  more  criticism 
than  is  one  somewhat  under  size,  yet  showing  much  quality. 

The  form  of  the  ram  has  already  been  referred  to  under 
the  heading  of  special  sex  characters.  In  general,  the  ram 

1  Australian  Sheep  and  Wool,   1906,  p.  135. 


436  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

should  show  a  frame  of  the  best  sort,  supported  on  strong 
limbs  and  feet.  This  is  an  evidence  of  vigor  and  should 
be  associated  with  a  deep,  full  heart  girth  and  a  prominent 
brisket,  features  indicating  strong  constitution.  The  ram 
should  be  short-coupled  and,  if  of  the  mutton  type,  tend 
to  compactness  of  form  rather  than  too  much  length. 
There  is  also  a  sense  of  the  massive  in  the  male  that  does 
not  prevail  in  the  female,  the  various  parts  being  developed 
on  a  stronger  and  heavier  scale.  A  ram  with  a  conforma- 
tion lacking  this  masculine  character  would  not  prove  an 
attractive  sort  for  a  sire. 

Breed  character  in  the  ram  is  of  paramount  importance. 
In  this  day  of  improved  breeds  there  is  no  excuse  for 
using  anything  but  a  pure  bred  ram.  The  judge  should 
emphasize  breed  character  as  seen  in  the  various  features 
to  be  found  in  good  individuals  of  a  breed.  It  is  most  im- 
portant that  one  be  familiar  with  these  characteristics. 
The  striking  differences  in  the  heads  of  the  Merino,  Shrop- 
shire, Cotswold  or  Cheviot  show  the  need  of  familiarity 
with  each,  if  the  judge  is  to  be  capable  of  passing  in  judg- 
ment. In  selecting  a  sire,  or  in  passing  on  a  ring  of  sires, 
preference  should  be  given  to  such  as  show  the  most  true- 
ness  to  breed  type. 

(B)— JUDGING  THE  EWE. 

The  sex  character  of  the  ewe  is  especially  seen  in  the 
head,  neck  and  breast,  and  udder.  The  head  is  much 
smaller  and  more  refined  than  in  case  of  the  ram.  The 
muzzle  and  nose  should  be  free  of  thickness  and  coarseness, 
although  a  Roman  type  of  nose  prevails  in  some  breeds 
and  is  no  evidence  of  coarseness.  The  eyes  are  smaller  and 
more  placid  than  with  the  male,  and  the  forehead  shows 
the  refinement  of  the  sex.  The  neck  is  more  slender,  lacks 
in  thickness  on  its  upper  side,  and  is  not  so  strongly  muscled 
as  a  whole.  The  chest  cavity  of  the  female  lacks  the  spread 
of  the  male,  with  the  associated  width  of  brisket  and 
withers  and  heaviness  of  shoulder.  The  udder  of  the  ewe 


JUDGING  BREEDING  SHEEP 


437 


consists  of  two  glands,  side  by  side,  each  of  which  has  one 
teat.  These  glands  should  be  of  equal  size  and  in  normal 
condition.  The  udder  should  be  closely  attached  at  the 
belly,  and  should  not  be  very  pendant,  even  during  lacta- 
tion. 

The  breeding  capacity  of  the  ewe  is  manifested  in  the 
depth  and  spring  of  rib,  in  the  length  and  position  of  rump, 
and  development  of  udder.  The  breeding  ewe  should  have 
considerable  depth  of  body,  and  the  udder  should  be  well 
developed  and  in  perfect  condition.  Length  of  body  is  also 
an  indication  of  breeding  capacity,  the  short,  close-coupled 
ewe  lacking  in  this  respect. 

The  size  of  the  ewe  in  most  favor  varies  from  medium 
to  large,  associated  with  plenty  of  quality.  The  tendency 
among  present  day  breeders  is  to  call  for  size,  especially 
in  the  female.  Large,  symmetrical,  matronly  looking  ewes, 
with  quality,  always  command  a  premium,  and  the  judge 
should  give  them  preference.  The  undersized  ewe  is 
usually  an  unsatisfactory  breeder  and  is  far  too  common  in 
the  flock. 


Fig.  239. — "Large,  symmetrical,  matronly  looking  ewes,  with  quality, 
always  command  a  premium."  Southdown  ewe  and  her  seven  months'  old 
lamb. 


438  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

The  form  of  the  ewe  has  been  likened  to  a  dairy  cow. 
The  withers  are  somewhat  narrow,  the  chest  is  deep,  yet 
hardly  thick,  the  back  of  moderate  thickness,  the  loin  strong, 
the  rump  long,  level,  wide  and  the  entire  body  deep  and 
relatively  capacious,  showing  both  digestive  and  breeding 
capacity.  A  ewe  with  the  wide,  square,  compact  form  of 
a  wether,  is  less  likely  to  make  a  good  suckling  ewe  than 
the  one  described.  The  quality  of  milk  production,  essen- 
tial in  a  breeding  ewe,  is  indicated  in  this  long,  deep  form, 
and  the  well-developed  udder. 

The  breed  characteristics  of  the  ewe  should  be  consid- 
ered when  judging  breeding  stock,  but  if  grade  animals  are 
being  passed  upon  then  the  subject  is  not  so  important  as 
in  the  case  of  the  ram.  The  pure  bred  ewe  should  show 
breed  character  quite  in  keeping  with  the  standard,  and 
should  be  judged  accordingly.  Even  with  the  grade  ewe, 
there  is  more  evidence  of  profit  in  the  one  showing  plenty 
of  improved  blood  than  in  the  one  of  nondescript  char- 
acter. Other  things  being  equal,  grade  ewes  showing  con- 
siderable breed  character  will  command  a  higher  price  than 
will  those  lacking  in  this  respect.  Trueness  to  type  of 
breed,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  an  important  factor  in 
making  awards  in  judging  pure  breds,  while,  in  the  grade, 
a  reasonable  degree  of  consideration  should  be  given  to  im- 
proved blood. 


CHAPTER  XLII. 

DESCRIPTIVE  NOTES  OF  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT 
BREEDS  OF  SHEEP. 

THE  various  breeds  of  sheep,  of  which,  there  are  many, 
may  be  classified  in  general  according  to  their  character  of 
fleece  and  their  relationship  to  mutton  production.  The 
ordinary  classification  has  already  been  explained  on  page 
374.  The  following  descriptions  are  intended  to  set  forth 
the  more  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  various  breeds, 
without  going  into  unnecessary  detail.  The  standard  and 
scale  of  points,  being  official  information  on  the  subject, 
are,  when  possible,  made  a  part  of  each  breed  description. 

The  Southdown  breed  of  sheep  was  first  developed  in 
southeast  England,  in  Sussex  county.  It  is  one  of  the  old- 
est and  best-known  breeds.  The  face,  ears  and  legs  are 
very  dark  reddish-brown  in  color,  with  a  tendency  to  gray- 
ish brown  on  the  face.  In  size  South  downs  rank  as  medium, 
though  many  mutton  breeders  think  them  too  small.  Ma- 
ture rams  will  no  doubt  average  about  175  pounds,  and 
the  ewes  about  185  pounds.  In  conformation,  specimens 
of  this  breed  represent  the  highest  ideals  in  mutton  form, 
being  short  of  head  and  neck,  wide  of  breast  and  back, 
thick  and  full  in  leg  of  mutton,  deep  of  body,  short  of  leg, 
and  generally  compact  of  body.  This  is  a  hornless  breed, 
and  the -head  tends  to  be  short  and  wide.  The  ears  are 
small  and  covered  with  short  wool  or  silky  hair.  The  flesh 
covering  is  usually  smooth  and  of  superior  quality.  The 
yield  of  fleece  is  somewhat  light ;  five  pounds  might  be 
regarded  as  a  fair  average,  with  a  length  of  staple  of  about 
two  and  one-half  inches,  and  of  medium  quality.  The  two 
important  criticisms  of  the  breed  are  lack  of  size,  and  the 
light  weight  of  fleece. 

439 


440 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


Fig.   240. — Southdown   ram,  champion  at  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition, 
St.  Louis,  11)04. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOE  SOUTHDOWN  SHEEP. 

(Adopted  by  American  Southdown  Sheep  Association.) 


Points 


Head — Medium  in  size  and  hornless,  fine,  carried  well  up,  the  forehead 
or  face  well  covered  with  wool,  especially  between  the  ears  and  on 
the  cheeks,  and  in  the  ewe  slightly  dished 

Lips  and  under  jaw — Fine  and  thin 

Ears — Rather  small,  tolerably  wide  apart,  covered  with  fine  hair,  and 
carried  with  a  lively  back-and-forth  movement 

Eyes — Full  and  bright 

Face — A  uniform  tint  of  brown,  or  gray,  or  mouse  color 

Neck — Short,  fine  at  the  head,  but  nicely  tapering,  and  broad  and 
straight  on  top  at  the  shoulders  

Shoulders — Broad  and  full,  smoothly  joining  the  neck  with  the  back      .  . 

Breast — Wide,  deep  and  projecting  well  forward,  the  forelegs  standing 
wide  apart  

Back — Back  and  loin  broad  and  straight  from  shoulders  to  rump      .  .       .  . 

Ribs — Well  arched,  extending  far  backward,  the  last  projecting  more 
than  the  others  

Bump — Broad,   square  and  full,  with  tail  well  set  up      

Hips — Wide,  with  little  space  between  them  and  last  ribs      

Thighs — Full  and  wgll  let  down  in  twist,  the  legs  standing  well  apart      .  . 

Limbs — Short  and  fine  in  bone,  and  in  color  to  agree  with  face      .  .       .  . 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP     441 

Points 

Forelegs — Well  wooled  and  carrying  mutton  to  the  knees,  but  free  from 

meat  below 2 

Hindlegs — Well  filled  with  mutton,  and  wooled  to  the  hocks;  neat  and 

clean  below 2 

Belly — Straight  and  covered  with  wool,  the  flank  extending  so  as  to  form 

a  line  parallel  with  the  back  or  top  line 5 

Fleece— Compact,  the  whole  body  well  covered  with  moderately  long  and 

close  wool,  white  in  color,  carrying  some  yolk 12 

Form — Throughout  smooth  and  symmetrical,  with  no  coarseness  in  any 

part  9 

General  appearance — Spirited  and  attractive,  with  a  determined  look,  a 

proud   and   firm    step,    indicating    constitutional    vigor    and    breeding        8 


Total   .  . 


The  Shropshire  breed  of  sheep  originated  in  the  counties 
of  Shropshire  and  Stafford,  in  western  England.  This  is 
a  hornless  breed  of  the  medium  wool  class.  The  color  of 
the  hair  of  face,  ears  and  legs  is  a  dark  brown,  often  ap- 


Fig.  241. — Shropshire  ram.  "His  Imperial  Majesty,"  breed  champion  Ohio 
State  Fair,  1911.     (Photo  by  courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 


442  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

preaching  black.  In  size,  the  Shropshire  is  somewhat 
larger  than  the  Southdown,  mature  rams  weighing  200 
pounds  and  ewes  150  to  160  pounds.  The  better  specimens 
of  the  breed  are  characterized  by  certain  distinctive  features. 
The  head  is  covered  with  a  heavy  cap  of  wool,  extending 
near  to  the  nostrils  as  with  a  Merino.  This  feature  is  more 
pronounced  than  with  other  mutton  breeds.  The  ears  tend 
to  be  short  and  broad,  and  covered  with  fine  hair,  or  short, 
curly  wool.  The  legs  should  be  wooled  to  the  ankle  joints, 
and  in  case  of  lambs,  the  wooling  should  be  very,  marked. 
The  form  is  distinctly  mutton  in  type,  though  not  so  wide  of 
back  and  short  of  leg  as  the  Southdown.  The  fleece  com- 
bines length,  compactness,  fineness  of  staple,  and  general 
quality  to  a  degree  superior  to  that  of  any  other  mutton 
breed.  In  good  specimens  the  shoulder  wool,  at  twelve 
months  is  about  three  and  one-half  inches  long,  the  fleece  as 
a  whole  weighing  about  eight  pounds.  The  skin  of  the 
Shropshire  is  not  always  uniformly  pink  in  color,  there 
being  a  tendency  to  bluish  spots  on  the  natural  pink.  The 
great  popularity  of  the  breed  is  due  to  its  combining  mut- 
ton and  wool  qualities  and  unusual  fecundity.  It  is  the 
most  universally  bred  of  any  of  the  mutton  breeds. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  SHROPSHIRE  SHEEP. 

(Adopted   by  the  American   Shropshire   Sheep   Breeders'    Association.) 

Points 

General  appearance — Attractive,  indicating  breeding  and  quality,  with 
stylish  carriage,  and  a  symmetrical  form  covered  with  a  dense 
fleece  25 

Constitution — Robust,  as  indicated  by  width  and  depth  of  chest,  strength 

and  formation  of  neck,  and  by  bold,  active  movement 10 

Size — In  breeding  condition  when  fully  matured,  rams  should  weigh  not 
less  than  180  to  225  pounds,  and  ewes  not  less  than  125  to  170 
pounds 10 

Fleece  and  skin — Fleece  of  good  length,  dense,  elastic  to  touch,  medium 
fine,  free  from  black  fiber,  slightly  crimped,  with  evenness  of  texture 
throughout;  scrotum  of  rams  well  covered  with  wool.  Skin  light 
cherry  color,  free  from  dark  spots 15 

Body — Well  proportioned,  with  shoulders  well  placed,  fitting  smoothly 
upon  the  chest,  which  should  be  deep  and  wide,  broad  and  straight 
back;  thick  loins  well  covered  with  firm  flesh;  hindquarters  well 
finished ;  twist  deep  and  full  20 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


1  i:i 


Points 

Head  and  neck — Head  short,  broad  between  the  ears  and  eyes,  bold 
and  masculine  in  rams,  without  horns,  well  covered  with  wool,  ears 
short  and  erect,  eyes  bright,  color  of  face  and  ears  dark  brown. 
Neck  of  medium  length,  strong  and  muscular  (especially  in  rams), 
symmetrically  joined  to  head  and  shoulders.  Rams  with  horns  or 

stubs  are  disqualified  as  heads  of  flocks       .  .       .  .       15 

Legs — Well  set  apart,  broad,  short,  straight,  color  dark  brown,   and  well 

wooled;  pasterns  strong  and  upright 5 


Total 


100 


The  Oxford  Down  breed  of  sheep  originated  in  Oxford- 
shire, in  southern  England,  dating  back  to  1833.  This 
breed,  in  its  improved  form,  resembles  the  Shropshire.  It 
is  hornless  and  of  the  medium  wool  class.  The  color,  as 


Pig.  242. — Oxford  Down  ram  owned  by  G.  W.  Heskett  of  Ohio. 

shown  in  the  hair  of  head,  ears,  and  legs,  is  a  dark  brown. 
Years  ago  gray  faces  occurred,  but  at  present  the  demand 
is  for  dark  color,  though  a  touch  of  gray  may  occur  on  the 
bridge  of  the  nose.  In  size  the  Oxford  Down  is  one  of  the 
large  breeds,  and  mature  rams  should  weigh,  when  in  good 


444  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

flesh,  275  pounds  or  more,  and  ewes  close  to  200  pounds. 
In  form,  the  Oxford  Down  shows  considerable  width  and 
depth  of  body,  with  a  fair  leg  of  mutton.  The  wool  does 
not  usually  cover  the  head  much  below  the  forehead,  though 
the  tendency  is  to  breed  to  wool  more  heavily  on  the  head. 
The  ears  are  comparatively  large  and  generally  free  of 
wool,  and  are  much  more  conspicuous  than  in  the  South- 
down or  Shropshire.  The  legs,  also,  are  not  as  a  rule  much 
wooled  below  knees  and  hocks.  The  skin  is  frequently 
bluish  pink  or  mottled  in  color,  rather  than  of  uniform 
pink.  The  fleece  -combines  length  of  staple  and  weight  in  a 
superior  degree,  but  inclines  to  be  somewhat  open,  with  ten- 
dency to  a  coarse  fiber.  A  year's  growth  of  fleece  should 
weigh  10  pounds  or  more,  and  show  a  length  at  the  shoulder 
of  about  four  inches. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  OXFORD  DOWN  SHEEP. 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Oxford  Down  Sheep  Breeders'  Association.) 

Points 
BREED  TYPE,  30  Points: 

Form — Of  a  good  general  appearance,  made  by  a  well-balanced  con- 
formation, free  from  coarseness  in  any  part,  and  showing  good 

style  both  at  rest  and  in  motion 15 

Head — Of  moderate  length  and  width  between  the  ears  and  between 
the  eyes,  and  well  covered  with  wool  over  poll  and  down  to  the 
eyes.  Color  of  face  an  even  dark  gray  or  brown,  either  with  or 

without  gray  spot  on  tip  of  nose 6 

Bams — When  fully  matured  and  in  good  condition  rams  should  weigh 
250  to  350  pounds.  Ewes — When  fully  matured  and  in  good 

condition,  ewes  should  weigh  180  to  275  pounds 5 

Ears — Medium   size,   not   too  thick   and   of   an   even  brown    or   dark 

gray    color         .  .      2 

Legs — Short,   strong  in  bone,   flat,    and  of  even  dark  gray  or  brown 

color,  placed  squarely  under  the  body  and  well  apart 2 

CONSTITUTION,  25  Points: 

Heart  Girth — Large  and  wide  and  full  in  the  chest 10 

Movement — Must  be  bold  and  vigorous 5 

Eyes — Bold,  prominent  and  bright 4 

Skin — Bright  pink  in   color 3 

Neck — Strong  and  muscular  in  rams  and  well  set  on  in  both  sexes   .  .        3 
MUTTON  FORM  AND  QUALITY,  30  Points: 

Shoulders,  back,  loin  and  rump — Wide  and  straight  on  top  from  base 

of  neck  to  tail 35 

Shoulders  and  thighs — Full  and  well  meated  both  inside  and  outside       5 
Flanks — Well  filled  and  strong  so  as  to  make  the  lower  lines  of  the 

body  as  straight  as  possible,  and  side  lines  straight  or  rather  full  .  .        4 
Carcass — Evenly  covered  with  good,  well  marbled  meat        6 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


445 


WOOL,  15  Points: 

Fleece — Of  moderate  length,  close  and  of  even   quality,   covering  the 

whole   carcass  well,    and  free  from  black  patches  upon  the  body, 

neck  or  head    .  15 


Total 


100 


The  Hampshire  breed  of  sheep  originated  in  Hampshire, 
in  southern  England.  This  is  a  large,  hornless  breed.  The 
color  of  the  hair  on  head,  ears  and  legs  is  a  very  dark 


Fig.  243. — Hampshire  ram,  champion  at  Ohio  State  Fair. 

brown,  almost  black  in  shade.  In  size  the  Hampshire  ranks 
among  the  largest  medium  wool  breeds,  mature  rams  weigh- 
ing about  250  pounds  and  ewes  from  175  to  200  pounds. 
Among  the  most  distinctive  characteristics  of  individuals  of 
the  breed  are  the  following:  the  head  is  somewhat  large, 
with  a  tendency  to  Roman  nose ;  the  ears  are  large,  bare  of 
wool,  conspicuous,  and  often  of  droopy  carriage ;  the  wool 
extends  but  a  slight  distance  over  the  forehead,  so  that  the 


446  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

very  dark  markings  of  head  and  ears  give  a  striking  per- 
sonality. The  frame  of  the  animal  is  large  and  long,  and 
the  limbs  show  heavy  bone  in  comparison  with  Southdown 
or  Shropshire.  The  fleece  is  long,  fairly  compact,  and  of 
the  coarser  medium  wool  character,  ranging  about  four 
inches  in  length  and  having  a  weight  for  twelve  months' 
growth  of  about  eight  pounds. 

SCALE   OF   POINTS  FOR  HAMPSHIRE  DOWN  SHEEP. 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Hampshire  Down  Sheep  Breeders'  Association.) 

Standard  of  Excellence. 

HEAD  AND  LEGS: 

Head  —  Moderately  large,   but  not  coarse,  well   covered   with  wool  on   fore- 

head and  cheeks. 
Nostrils—  Wide. 

Color  —  (Head  and  legs)  :     Dark  brown  or  black. 
Eyes  —  Prominent  and  lustrous. 

Ears  —  Moderately  long  and  thin,  and  dark  brown  or  black  color. 
Legs  —  Well  under  outside  of  body,  straight,  with  good  size  of  bone;  black. 

NECK,   SHOULDERS  AND  CHEST: 

Neck  —  A  regular  taper  from  shoulders  to  head,  without  any  hollow  in  front 

of  shoulders,  set  high  up  on  body. 

Shoulders  —  Sloping,  full,  and  not  higher  than  the  line  of  back  and  neck. 
Chest  —  Deep  and  full  in  the  heart  place,  with  breast  prominent  and  full. 
BODY: 

Back  —  Straight,  with  full  spring  of  rib. 

Loin  —  Wide  and  straight,  without  depression  in  front  of  hips. 

Quarters  —  Long    from    hips   to    end    of    rump,    without    sloping,    and    deep 

in  thigh.      Broad  in  hips  and  rump,  with  full  harns.      Inside  of  thighs 

full. 

Scale  of  Points. 


Head  —  Size  and  shape      
Ears  and  eyes   
Color  

Points 
5 
3 
5 

Legs  and  feet  

2 

Neck  .  . 

5 

Shoulders  

10 

Chest  and  breast       
Body  —  Back  and   loin      

15 
15 

Rib     
Quarters  —  Length     

5 

10 

Width     
Twist       

10 
5 

Wool  —  Forehead  and  cheeks   

Belly  well  covered  

3 

Quality       

5 

Total       ................  .    100 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHKK1'     447 

The  Dorset  Horn  breed  of  sheep  has  its  native  home  in 
Dorset  and  Somerset  counties,  in  southern  England.  It  is, 
as  indicated  by  its  name,  a  horned  breed  of  sheep,  and  is 
of  the  medium  wool  class.  The  color  of  the  hair  of  head, 
ears  and  legs  is  white.  The  horns  are  the  striking  char- 
acteristic of  this  breed,  those  on  the  mature  rams  curving 


Fig.  244. — Dorset  Horn  ram,  owned  by  Tranquility  Farm,  New  Jersey 
champion  at  Ohio  State  Fair. 

backward  and  around  spirally,  being  of  large  size,  while 
those  of  the  female,  which  are  comparatively  small,  curve 
outward,  down  and  slightly  forward,  with  the  tips  rising 
about  level  with  or  slightly  above  the  eyes.  This  is  a 
medium-sized  breed,  mature  males  weighing  about  225 
pounds,  and  females  about  165  pounds.  The  neck  and 
body  of  the  Dorset  Horn  tend  to  be  somewhat  long,  and 


448  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

the  spring  of  rib  is  frequently  not  as  strong  as  it  should  be. 
The  fleece  is  one  of  the  weak  features  of  this  breed,  lacking 
under  ordinary  condition  in  length,  compactness,  weight 
and  quality.  Mature  rams  shear  about  nine  and  the  ewes 
about  six  pounds  of  wool. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOB  DORSET  HORNED  SHEEP. 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Dorset  Horned  Sheep  Breeders'  Association.) 

Points 
Head — Neat,   face  white,   nostrils  large,   well  covered   on   crown   and  under 

jaw   with   wool         5 

Horns — Small  and  gracefully   curving  forward,  rather  close  to  jaw      .  .  5 

Eyes — Prominent   and   bright         2 

Ears — Medium  size,  covered  with  short  white  hair 2 

Neck — Short,  symmetrical,  strongly  set  on  shoulders,  gradually  tapering 

to    junction    of    head 5 

Shoulders — Broad   and  full,   joining  neck   forward,   and   chine  backward, 

with   no    depression   at   either   point    (important)       15 

Brisket — Wide  and  full,  forward,   chest  full  and  deep      8 

Foreflank — Quite  full,  showing  little  depression  behind  shoulder      .  .       .  .  8 
Back  and  loin — Wide  and  straight,  from  which  ribs  should  spring  with  a 

fine,  circular  arch .  .  10 

Quarters — Wide  and  full,  with  mutton  extending  down  to  hocks      .  .       .  .  10 

Belly — Straight   on  under  line 3 

Fleece — Medium  grade,  of  even  quality  presenting  a  smooth  surface  and 

extending  over  belly  and  well  down  on  legs 12 

General  conformation — Of  the  mutton  type,  body  moderately  long;  short, 
stout  legs,  squarely  placed  under  body ;  skin  pink ;  appearance  at- 
tractive    15 

Total .    100 


The  Cheviot  breed  of  sheep  originated  among  the  Cheviot 
hills  of  the  border  country  between  England  and  Scotland, 
though  known  as  a  Scotch  breed.  It  is  a  medium  wooled 
sheep,  and  quite  generally  hornless,  although  horns  occa- 
sionally occur  on  the  males.  The  color  is  entirely  white, 
excepting  the  bare  flesh  at  the  nostrils,  which  should  be 
blue  black,  although  this  part  is  frequently  mottled  in 
color.  The  more  popular  and  common  color  of  the  hoofs 
is  black.  In  size  the  Cheviot  is  medium,  mature  rams 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP      449 

weighing  in  good  condition  about  200  pounds,  and  the 
ewes  from  140  to  160  pounds.  This  breed  is  characterized 
by  the  following  distinctive  features.  The  head  and  ears 
should  be  free  of  wool,  and  covered  with  a  hard,  white, 
glossy  hair.  Red  or  sandy  hair  occasionally  appears,  but 
is  very  objectionable.  Small  black  spots  also  sometimes 
occur  on  the  long,  thin,  erect  ears,  and  on  the  head,  but  are 
growing  in  disfavor.  A  Roman  nose  is  common  on  the 
rams,  and  on  some  ewes.  The  eye  is  prominent  and  bold. 


Fig.  24H. — Pon  of  Cheviot  rams  of  J.  R.  C.  Smith,  Mowhaugh,  Scotland. 

The  body  frequently  lacks  in  thickness,  and  tends  to  nar- 
rowness of  chest,  withers  and  back,  compared  with  the 
Southdown.  The  skin  is  very  generally  of  a  bright  pink 
color.  The  fleece  is  of  medium  length,  lacks  in  compactness, 
and  is  often  somewhat  coarse  about  the  thighs.  A  twelve 
months'  fleece  on  a  mature  ram  weighs  about  nine  pounds, 
while  seven  pounds  is  a  fair  weight  for  an  improved  ewe. 
The  Cheviot  is  notable  for  its  style  and  grace  of  carriage, 
being  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  breeds.  It  is  very 
nervous  and  active  of  temperament. 


450  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  CHEVIOT  SHEEP. 

(Adopted   by   the   American   Cheviot    Sheep    Society.) 

Points 

General  conformation  and  quality — Deep  and  full  breast  and  large  through 
chest.  Back  wide  and  straight  with  well  sprung,  deep  ribs.  Legs 
well  placed  and  leg  of  mutton  full  and  thick.  Body  well  fleshed, 
skin  pink  with  no  blue  or  dark  coloring.  Fleece  compact  and 
medium  fine.  Bone  strong  and  fine.  General  appearance  graceful, 
symmetrical,  active  20 

Size — In   good  flesh,    when  fully  matured,   a  24-months'    old  ram  should 

weigh  not  less  than  225  pounds  and  a  ewe  not  less  than  150  pounds      10 

Head — Should  be  medium  short  and  broad  with  ample  breadth  between 
the  eyes.  Ears  should  be  of  medium  length  and  usually  erect  when  at 
repose.  Head  covered  with  clear  white  hairs,  extending  from  nostrils 
to  back  of  poll.  Ridge  of  head  from  between  eyes  to  nostrils 
straight  or  slightly  arched  with  females  and  more  strongly  arched 
or  Roman  with  rams.  Color  of  tip  of  nose  black 15 

Body — Well  proportioned,  having  notable  depth,  with  thickness  on  top 
and  at  flanks.  Loins  should  be  very  broad  and  thick,  shoulders 
should  set  well  back  and  be  smoothly  covered,  and  crops  be  full  and 
well  arched.  The  rump  should  be  long,  broad  and  level  .  .  .  .  20 

Legs — Should  be  short,  well  set  apart  and  be  covered  with  clean  white 
hair,  with  no  wool  below  hocks  and  knees.  The  hind  legs  should  be 
flat  and  deep  below  hocks.  Pasterns  should  be  strong  and  not  show 
weakness,  supporting  the  body  well 10 

Feet — Symmetrical,   squarely  placed  when  in  repose  and  hoofs  black  in 
^     color          5 

Fleece — Should  cover  the  body  completely  to  behind  the  poll  and  ears, 
and  down  to  knees  and  hocks.  Under  part  of  the  body  should  be 
well  covered.  In  mature  animals  should  be  not  less  than  three  inches 
long  foi*  annual  growth,  and  be  compact  and  of  medium  wool  class. 
Rams  should  shear  at  least  12  pounds  and  ewes  eight  pounds  when 
in  mature  form,  to  be  desirable  representatives  of  the  breed  .  .  .  .  20 

Total 100 

Objections:  Scurs  on  the  head;  black  spots  on  the  head;  flesh  colored  or 
spotted  skin  about  the  nostrils;  hair  about  the  thighs  or  kemp  on  the 
body,  reddish  or  sandy  hair  on  head  or  legs;  lack  of  wool  on  under 
part  of  body.  Disqualifications:  All  male  lambs  shall  be  ineligible  to 
registration  if  having  scurs  or  horns  exceeding  one  inch  in  length. 

I 

The  Suffolk  breed  of  sheep  originated  in  southeastern 
England,  especially  in  Suffolk  county.  It  is  a  hornless, 
medium  wool  breed.  It  is  a  very  striking  sheep  in  appear- 
ance, on  account  of  its  black  head,  ears  and  legs.  In  size, 
the  Suffolk  ranks  above  medium,  being  somewhat  larger 
than  the  Shropshire.  The  ram  usually  has  a  Roman  nose. 
The  ears  are  large  and  tend  to  horizontal  carriage.  This 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHKKP 


451 


is  a  distinctive  mutton  breed,  and  is  broad-fronted,  wide, 
of  back,  thick  in  the  hindquarter,  and  short  of  leg.  The 
fleece  is  medium  in  length  and  compactness,  and  the  staple 
of  fair  quality.  Wool  does  not  usually  cover  the  head, 
ears,  or  legs  below  knee  and  hock.  There  are  very  few  of 
these  sheep  in  America,  but  in  England  they  are  regarded 
with  favor  for  their  excellent  mutton  character. 


Tig.  246. — Suffolk  ram,  first  and  champion  at  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  Show  of  England,  1914. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  SUFFOLK  SHEEP. 

(Adopted  by  the  American   Suffolk  Flock  Registry   Association.) 

Points 

General   appearance— Pleasing   outline,   good  carriage,   and  symmetry   of 

development 7 

General  form — Large  in  size;  inclined  to  he  long  in  hody;  medium 
strength  of  bone;  somewhat  cylindrical  in  shape,  and  straight  above, 
below  and  in  the  rear 

Head — Medium  in  size,  inclining  to  be  long  and  covered  with  fine,  short, 
glossy  black  hair  to  the  junction  with  the  neck;  a  small  quantity 
of  clean  white  wool  on  the  forehead  is  not  objected  to;  muzzle 
moderately  fine,  especially  in  ewes;  eyes  bright  and  full;  ears  of 
medium  length  and  fineness  


1". 


15 


452  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Points 

Neck — Moderately  long  and  well  set,  and  blending  well  with  the  body, 

with  some  crest  in  the  rams 5 

Forequarters — Well  developed;  breast  wide,  deep  and  full;  brisket  broad; 
chest  capacious,  with  good  heart  girth;  shoulders  broad,  oblique  and 
Avell  filled  in  the  neck  vein  and  crops;  withers  broad;  arm  well  de- 
veloped    , .  15 

Earrel — Roomy;  back  straight,  broad  and  well  fleshed  throughout  its 
entire  length;  ribs  well  sprung  and  moderately  deep;  fore  and  hind 
flanks  full  and  deep 10 

Hindquarters — Long,  deep  and  full;  tail,  broad  and  well  set  up;  buttock 

broad;  twist  full;  thigh  broad  and  full 15 

Feet  and  legs — Straight,  of  medium  length  with  flat  bone ;  bare  of  wool 

below  knee  and  hock,  glossy  black  in  color,  and  set  well  apart  .  .  8 

Fleece — Moderately  short,  with  close,  fine,  lustrous  fiber,  and  without 
tendency  to  mat  or  felt  together,  or  to  shade  into  dark  or  gray 
wool  or  hair,  especially  about  the  neck  or  tail.  The  fleece  should 
cover  the  whole  body  except  the  head  and  the  legs  below  the  knee 
and  hock;  and  the  skin  underneath  it  should  be  fair,  soft  and  of  a 
pink  -color  10 

Total 100 


The  Tunis  breed  of  sheep  comes  from  ancestry  tracing 
back  to  an  importation  from  Tunis  to  America,  in  1799. 
Tunis  sheep  have  not  been  bred  extensively  in  America, 
and  lack  uniformity  of  character.  It  is  a  hornless,  medium 
wool  breed.  The  color  marks  are  variable.  Some  sheep 
have  reddish-brown  heads,  ears  and  legs,  while  with  others 
the  colors  are  mottled  brown  and  white,  especially  of  head 
and  ear.  The  ears  are  large,  broad  and  pendulous,  and 
covered  with  fine  hair.  In  size,  the  Tunis  is  of  the  smaller 
class  of  mutton  sheep,  rams  at  maturity  weighing  150 
pounds  or  more,  and  ewes  120  pounds.  A  peculiarity  of 
this  sheep  is  its  broad  tail.  At  maturity  it  may  measure 
five  inches  or  more  in  width,  and  maintains  this  breadth 
for  a  length  of  six  or  eight  inches  from  the  tail-head.  The 
lambs  are  usually  docked,  so  that  the  naturally  conspicuous 
character  of  tail  is  not  seen,  though  the  rump  on  this  ac- 
count is  more  full  and  heavier  than  with  our  other  breeds. 
The  neck  inclines  to  be  long,  but  the  body  as  a  whole  is  of 
fair  mutton  form.  There  is  also  a  tendency  to  be  somewhat 
leggy.  The  fleece  is  of  excellent  quality,  being  fine,  soft 
and  fairly  compact,  and  averages  about  three  inches  in 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP     453 


Fig.  247. — Tunis  ram,  "Oon.  McPherson"  1619,  a  noted  sire  of  the  breed. 
(Photo  by  courtesy  The  American  Sheep  Breeder.) 

length.  The  fleece  varies  in  color,  and  reddish  fibers  fre- 
quently occur  among  the  white  staple.  The  lambs  when 
dropped  are  of  various  colors :  white,  red,  tawny,  mottled, 
but  with  age  the  fleece  loses  much  of  its  mottled  appearance. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  TUNIS  SHEEP. 

(Adopted  by  American  Tunis  Sheep  Breeders'   Association.) 

Points 

Blood — Imported  from  Tunis,  or  having  a  perfect  line  of  ancestors  ex- 
tending back  to  the  flock  owned  and  bred  by  Judge  Richard  Peters, 
of  Belmont,  near  Philadelphia,  who  received  the  first  pair  from  Tunis 
in  1799,  and  bred  them  pure  for  more  than  20  years  20 

Constitution — Healthful  countenance,  lively  look,  head  erect,  deep  chest, 
ribs  well  arched,  round  body  with  good  length.  Strong,  straight  back; 
muscles  fine  and  firm 15 

Fleece — Medium  length,  medium  quality,  medium  quantity,  color  tinc- 
tured with  gray,  never  pure  white.  Evenness  throughout  .  .  .  .  10 


454  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Points 

Covering — Body  and  neck  well  covered  with  wool.  Legs  bare  or  slightly 

covered;  face  free  from  wool  and  covered  with  fine  hair 10 

Form  and  tail — Body  straight,  broad,  well  proportioned.  Small  bone ; 
breast  wide  and  prominent  in  front.  Tail — the  little  end  should  be 
docked,  leaving  the  fleshy  part  fan-shaped,  or  tapering;  five  to  ten 
inches  broad,  six  or  eight  inches  long,  and  well  covered  with  wool  12 

Head  and  ears — Head  small  and  hornless,  tapering  to  end  of  nose ;  face 
and  nose  clean,  in  color  brown  and  white.  Ears  broad,  thin,  pen- 
dulous, covered  with  fine  hair;  in  color  brown  to  light  fawn  .  .  .  .  10 

Neck — Medium  in  length,  well  placed  on  shoulders ;    small  and  tapering        5 

Legs— Short.  In  color  brown  and  white;  slightly  wooled  not  objec- 
tionable   .  .  6 

Size — In  fair  condition,  when  fully  matured,  rams  should  weigh  150 

pounds  and  upward;  ewes,  120  pounds  and  upward 6 

General  appearance — Good  carriage ;  head  well  up ;  quick,  elastic  move- 
ments, showing  symmetry  of  form  and  uniformity  of  character 
throughout  .  .  .  .  6 


Total 100 

The  Leicester  breed  of  sheep  originated  in  Leicestershire, 
central  England,  being  one  of  the  older  British  breeds.  It 
is  a  hornless,  distinctly  white-faced  breed.  The  head  is  a 
notable  feature  of  this  breed.  The  nose  is  more  or  less 
arching,  the  eye  prominent,  frequently  a  light  tuft  of  wool 
extends  over  the  poll.  Hard  white  hairs  cover  the  face. 
There  is  a  bluish  tint  to  the  skin  on  the  head.  Black  spots 
also  occur  in  a  slight  way  on  both  head  and  ears.  The 
flesh  at  lips  and  nostrils  should  be  black.  The  thin,  long 
ears,  which  are  covered  with  white  hair,  are  directed  back- 
ward and  show  much  activity.  The  appearance  of  head,  and 
its  animated,  stylish  carriage,  quite  suggests  the  Cheviot. 
The  Leicester  is  one  of  the  larger  breeds,  and  mature  rams 
will  weigh  from  225  to  250  pounds,  and  ewes  from  175  to 
200  pounds.  The  neck  is  short  and  not,  as  a  rule,  much 
elevated.  The  body  is  wide  of  bosom,  broad  of  back,  and 
the  hindquarters  often  tend  to  narrowness.  Leicesters,  as 
viewed  from  above,  seem  unusually  wide,  but  from  one  side, 
give  evidence  of  lack  of  depth  of  rib.  The  legs  which  are 
free  of  wool  from  knee  and  hock  to  the  toes,  impress  one 
as  being  somewhat  long  and  fine  of  bone.  The  fleece  is  of 
the  long  wool  class,  being  quite  curly,  somewhat  open,  and 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


455 


Fig.  248. — Leicester  sheep  on  pasture  in  Ireland. 

averaging  about  six  inches  in  length,  and  weighing  about 
nine  or  ten  pounds.  In  the  border  country  of  England  and 
Scotland  has  been  developed  a  type  known  as  the  Border 
Leicester.  This  has  a  bolder  carriage  and  style  of  head,  and 
is  quite  free  of  wool  on  the  poll.  The  face  af  the  Border 
Leicester  is  a  clear  white.  In  carcass  the  latter  is  larger 
and  longer,  the  belly  is  not  quite  so  full  in  outline,  being 
carried  rather  more  lightly.  The  border  sheep  is  also  some- 
what more  leggy  than  the  older  type. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOE  LEICESTER  SHEEP. 

(Adopted  by  American  Leicester  Sheep  Breeders'   Association.) 

Points 
Head — Long,    moderately    small,    tapering   toward   the    muzzle;    white    and 

well  covered  with  hair;   lips  and  nostrils  black 6 

Nose — Somewhat    narrow,    almost   straight    in    ewes,    and   slightly   Roman 

in  rams 2 

Face — Having   a   wedge-shaped   appearance,   well  covered  with   fine  white 

hairs  .-.  2 


456  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Points 
Ears — Thin,  rather  long,  mobile  and  directed  backward;  a  black  speck 

on  face  and  ears  not  uncommon .  .  .  .  2 

Eyes — Large  and  prominent  4 

Neck — Strong  and  moderately  short,  level  with  the  back  and  broad  at 

the   base  where   it    leaves   the   chest,    gradually   tapering   toward   the 

head,  being  fine  where  head  and  neck  join;   neck  straight  from  chest, 

showing  a  straight  line  from  rump  to  poll 6 

Breast — Deep,  broad  and  full  '8 

Shoulders — Upright,  wide  across  the  top,  giving  good  thickness  through 

the  heart  6 

Chest — Well  filled  behind  the  shoulder,  with  large  girth  6 

Back — Broad  and  well  fleshed,  ribs  well  sprung,  loins  wide,  hips  level, 

quarters  straight  and  long 12 

Barrel — Round,  well  ribbed  home,  straight  lines  above  and  below  .  .  .  .  10 
Legs — of  moderate  length,  fairly  large  and  wide  apart,  with  strong  flat 

bone,  covered  with  white  hair;  brown  hair  or  spots  objectionable  6 

Flesh — Firm,  springy  pelt ;  pink  skin  .  .  ....  8 

Fleece — Fine,  uniform  and  round  in  staple,  curly,  with  good  bright 

luster,  and  no  dark  hairs  or  kemp,  belly  well  covered •.  .  .  10 

Carcass — Rectangular,  legs  well  set  on,  hocks  straight,  pasterns  good, 

with  neat  feet,  good  general  appearance 12 

Total 100 

The  Cotswold  breed  of  sheep  originated  in  central  south- 
western England,  in  Gloucestershire.  It  is  one  of  the  very 
old  long  wool  breeds.  The  head  is  one  of  the  striking  fea- 
tures, being  hornless,  and  usually  white,  although  gray  or 
brown  frequently  occurs.  The  tendency  to  a  distinct  Eoman 
nose  exists,  especially  with  rams,  and  the  nostrils  are  dark 
in  color.  Curls  or  locks  drop  over  the  forehead,  these 
sometimes  covering  much  of  the  face,  especially  on  show 
sheep  where  they  have  been  protected.  The  ears  are  some- 
what large  and  coarse,  are  covered  with  fine  hair,  and 
heavily  carried,  quite  in  contrast  with  the  Leicester.  In 
size  this  is  a  large  breed,  mature  rams  weighing  250  to 
275  pounds  and  ewes  200  to  225  pounds.  This  sheep  has  a 
very  wide  body,  especially  in  front,  and  strong  spring  of 
rib.  There  is  a  tendency  to  narrowness  behind.  The  legs 
are  long,  but  heavy  in  bone,  in  comparison  with  the  Leices- 
ter. In  fact,  this  is  a  grosser  type  of  sheep  in  general. 
The  fleece  consists  of  large,  lustrous,  curly  locks,  while  those 
on  the  Leicester  are  of  a  finer  type.  The  fleece  averages 
about  eight  inches  long  at  twelve  months,  and  weighs  about 
10  pounds. 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


457 


Fig.  249. — Cotswold  ram.  first  in  class  at  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition, 
St.  Louis,  1904.     (Photo  by  courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOB  COTSWOLD  SHEEP. 

(Adopted  by  American   Cotswold  Registry  Association.) 

Bam. 

Points 

Head — Not  too  fine,  moderately   small  and  broad  between  the  eyes  and 
nostrils,   but   without  a  short,   thick,    appearance,   and   in  young  ani- 
mals well  covered   on  the   crown  with  long,    lustrous  wool      .  .       .  .        8 
Face — Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,   or  white  dappled  with 

brown 4 

Nostrils — Wide  and  expanded;  nose  dark 1 

Eyes — Prominent,  but  mild  looking        2 

Ears — Broad,  long,  moderately  thin  and  covered  with  short  hair      .  .       .  .        4 
Collar — Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradually  all  the  way 
to  where  the  neck  and  head  join.     The  neck  should  be  short,  thick 
and  strong,  indicating  constitutional  vigor,   and  free  from  coarse  and 

loose    skin         0 

Shoulders — Broad  and  full,  and  at  the  same  time  joined  so  gradually  to  the 
collar  forward  and  chine  backward  as  not  to  leave  the  least  hollow 
in  either  place  .  .  .  .  • 8 


458  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Points 
Forelegs — The  mutton  on  the  arm  or  fore  thigh  .should  come  quite  to  the 

knee.      Leg  upright  with   heavy   bone,   being   clear   from   superfluous 

skin,  with  wool  to  fetlock,  and  may  be  mixed  with  gray  .  .  .  .  1 
Breast — Broad  and  well  forward,  keeping  the  legs  wide  apart,  girth  or 

chest  full  and  deep 10 

Fore  flank — Quite  full,  not  showing  hollow  behind  the  shoulders 5 

Back  and  loin — Broad,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  the  ribs  must  spring 

with  a  fine  circular  arch ]'.> 

Belly — Straight  on  underline  .  .  . , 3 

Quarters — Long  and  full,  with  mutton  quite  down  to  the  hock  .  .  .  .  G 

Hock — Should  stand  neither  in  or  out  2 

Twist — Or  junction  inside  the  thighs;  deep,  wide  and  full,  which,  with 

a  broad  breast,  will  keep  the  legs  open  and  upright 5 

Fleece — The  whole  body  should  be  covered  with  long  lustrous  wool  .  .  18 

Total 100 

Ewe. 

The    standard    and    scale    for    the    ewe    is    identical    with    that    of    the    ram, 

excepting  in  the  following  particulars: 

Points 

Head — Moderately  fine,  broad  between  the  eyes  and  nostrils,  but  without 
a  short,  thick  appearance,  and  well  covered  on  crown  with  long, 
lustrous  wool  .  .  8 

Collar — Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradually  all  the  way  to 
whore  the  neck  and  head  join.  The  neck  should  be  fine  and  graceful 
and  free  from  coarse  or  loose  skin 5 

Fore  flank — Same  standard  as  for  ram,  but  points      5 

Belly — Same  standard  as  for  ram,  but  points 3 

The  Lincoln  breed  of  sheep  originated  in  Lincolnshire, 
in  eastern  England,  and  is  a  very  old  breed  of  the  hornless, 
long-wooled  sort.  The  prevailing  color  of  face,  ears  and 
legs  is  white,  but  gray  shading  frequently  occurs  on  the 
nose.  This  is  one  of  the  largest  of  breeds,  mature  rams 
averaging,  in  good  flesh,  275  pounds,  and  ewes  about  250 
pounds.  Characteristic  features  of  the  Lincoln  are  a  large, 
white-faced  head,  slightly  capped  with  wool ;  dotted  or  mot- 
tled ears ;  a  wide  breast,  broad  back  and  general  thickness ; 
strong  limbs  and  heavy  bone ;  and  a  coarse,  long,  curly, 
lustrous  wool.  The  fleece  may  attain  an  average  length 
of  about  eight  inches  and  weigh  approximately  15  pounds. 
The  locks  on  the  Lincoln  have  a  larger,  coarser  curl  than 
on  the  Leicester. 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


459 


Fig.   250. — Lincoln   ram   "Dowsby   350  Guineas,"   first   prize,   Royal  Agri- 
cultural  Society  of  England   Show. 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  LINCOLN  SHEEP. 

(Adopted   by   American   Lincoln   Sheep   Breeders'    Association.) 

Points 
Constitution — Body  deep,  back  wide  and  straight;  wide  and  full  in  thigh; 

bright,  large  eyes;   skin  soft  and  of  a  pink  color      

Size — Mature  rams   not  less  than  250  poundsi,   when  in  good  condition. 

Matured  ewes  not  less  than  200  pounds 10 

Appearance — Good    carriage    and    symmetry    of    form 10 

Body — Well    proportioned,    good    bone    and    length;    broad    hindquarters; 

legs   standing  well   apart ;   breast  wide   and   deep      

Head — Should  be  covered  with  wool  to  the  ears;  tuft  on  forehead;  eyes 

expressive ;    ears   fair    length ;    dotted    or   mottled    in    color      .  .       .  .      10 

Neck — Medium  length ;  good  muscle ;  well  set  on  body 5 

Less — Broad    and   well    set    apart;    good    shape;    color   white,    but    some 

black  spots  do  not  disqualify ;  wooled  to  the  knees 10 

Fleece — Of  good  even  length  and  quality  over  body;  not  less  than  8  inches 

long  for  one  year's  growth        10 

Quality   of  wool — Rather  fine,   long  wool;    strong,   lustrous   fiber;    no   ten- 
dency to  cot 5 

Total..  10° 


25 


15 


460  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

The  Bomney  Marsh  breed  of  sheep  originated  on  the 
low-lying  meadows  of  county  Kent,  in  eastern  England. 
This  is  a  pure  white,  hornless  breed.  On  these  lowlands 
Eomneys  are  said  to  be  comparatively  free  from  foot-rot. 
The  head  is  covered  with  hard,  white  hair  up  to  the  forehead, 
which  is  tufted  over  with  short  wool.  The  nose  has  a  Roman 
tendency  and  the  nostrils  are  black  in  color.  The  muzzle 


Fig.  251. — Romney  Marsh  ram,  a  winner  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
of  England  Show.     (Photo  by  courtesy  American  Sheep  Breeder.) 

has  a  bluish  tint.  The  ears  are  of  a  medium  size,  and  more  or 
less  covered  with  wool.  In  size,  the  mature  rams  weigh 
about  200  pounds,  and  the  ewes  140  to  160  pounds.  This 
breed  has  been  improved  considerably  in  recent  years,  and 
to-day  is  a  fairly  thick,  compact  type  of  sheep,  with  con- 
siderable width  of  back  and  depth  of  rib,  and  carrying  a 
heavy  leg  of  mutton.  The  fleece  is  of  the  long  wool  class 


MORE  IMPORTANT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP      461 

of  the  finer  sort,  somewhat  open,  and  weighs  about  eight 
pounds  under  average  conditions.  There  are  but  a  few 
of  these  sheep  in  America,  an  effort  having  been  made, 
however,  in  recent  years  to  introduce  them  on  the  western 
range. 

The  American  Merino  (or  Spanish  Merino)  is  a  sheep  of 
Spanish  ancestry,  the  characteristics  of  which  are  set  forth 
in  the  discussion  of  the  Class  A  Merino,  which  is  the  same 
thing.  There  are  various  families  of  these  sheep,  but  they 
all  possess  the  same  general  features,  and  their  blood  is 
more  or  less  intermingled. 

The  Delaine  Merino  is  of  American  breeding,  but  de- 
scended from  sheep  imported  from  Spain  early  in  the  nine- 


FJg.  252. — Rambouillet   ram   "Altamont,"   champion   at   the   International 
Live  Stock  Exposition,  1905.    (Photo  by  courtesy  Mr.  George  Truesdell.) 


402  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

teenth  century.  Delaine  Merinoes  may  be  either  of  Class  B 
or  C  type,  the  descriptions  of  which  have  already  been  given 
in  detail. 

The  Rambouillet  breed  of  sheep  is  a  Merino  of  the  De- 
laine type,  but  of  French  ancestry.  The  differences  be- 
tween the  Rambouillet  and  Class  C  Merino  in  color  mark- 
ings, conformation,  size  and  fleece  are  very  slight.  In 
fact,  the  blood  of  the  French  Merino  in  times  past  has  been 
mingled  more  or  less  with  the  Delaine.  During  recent 
years  of  breeding,  the  Rambouillet  has  been  bred  to  some- 
what greater  size,  but  even  then  the  difference  is  not  always 
marked.  The  Rambouillet  rams  will  average  about  185 
pounds  at  maturity,  and  the  ewes  150  pounds  or  slightly 
more.  The  fleece  at  one  year  of  age  is  usually  three  inches 
long,  of  fine,  soft  quality,  carrying  a  moderate  amount  of 
oil,  and  weighing  about  fifteen  pounds  as  taken  from  ma- 
ture rams,  and  ten  pounds  from  ewes.  Rambouillet  sheep 
vary  considerably  in  type,  ranging  from  Class  B  to  Class  C 
in  form  and  fleece  character.  At  the  Ohio  State  Fair, 
Rambouillet  sheep  have  been  exhibited  in  two  general 
classes,  B  and  C,  on  the  same  general  basis  that  Merino 
sheep  are  given  these  two  type  classifications. 


CHAPTER  XLIII. 

THE  ANGORA  GOAT. 

The  native  home  of  the  Angora  goat  is  the  province  of 
Angora,  in  Asia  Minor,  some  200  miles  south  by  southeast 
from  Constantinople..  Many  years  ago  some  goats  were 
brought  to  America  under  the  name  of  Cashmere,  that  are 
now  known  to  have  been  true  Angoras. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Angora  goat,  of  the  more  im- 
proved type,  are  as  follows :  The  color  is  pure  white.  The 
Angora  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  common  short-haired 
goat,  the  bucks  weighing  from  60  to  100  pounds,  and  the 
does  about  50  pounds.  The  two  most  striking  features  of 
this  goat  are  the  head  and  the  fleece.  The  head  is  fine, 
the  forehead  being  comparatively  broad,  the  eyes  bright 
and  fairly  prominent,  and  the  muzzle  broad.  The  grayish, 
flat-like  horns  are  somewhat  heavy  on  the  male,  and  turn 
back  and  twist  outward  and  backward  for  18  to  20  inches, 
the  tips  being  widely  separated.  The  horns  on  the  doe 
show  little  twist,  rise  upward  and  then  turn  back,  being 
comparatively  small.  The  thin,  pointed  ears  average  six 
to  eight  inches  in  length,  and  about  two  in  width,  and  are 
what  might  be  termed  semi-pendant.  The  head  should  be 
carried  erect  and  with  vigor.  The  body  tends  to  be  round, 
and  deep  of  rib,  with  comparatively  level  back.  Width  of 
chest  is  emphasized  as  evidence  of  constitution.  Angoras 
frequently  show  narrow,  droopy  rumps,  a  very  undesirable 
conformation  which  judges  should  severely  discriminate 
against.  Shortness  of  leg,  strong  bone,  and  well  carried 
pasterns  are  much  to  be  desired.  The  short  stub  of  tail 
is  usually  carried  rather  erect.  The  usual  color  of  the  skin 
is  a  bright  pink. 

463 


464 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


The  fleece  of  the  Angora,  commonly  known  as  Mohair 
in  the  market,  is  a  class  of  hair  differing  from  wool  in  having 
no  exterior  scales  of  importance.  The  fleece  is  pure  white 
under  natural  conditions,  and  covers  the  entire  body  ex- 
cepting the  face,  which  is  usually  covered  with  hard,  white 
hair  between  the  lower  part  of  the  forehead  and  nostrils. 


Fig.  253. — Angora  goat,  "Lazarus,"  a  noted  champion.     (Photo  by  courtesy 
American  Sheep  Breeder.) 

In  fact,  there  are  two  classes  of  hair  on  the  Angora,  one 
that  is  short  and  kempy,  lying  close  to  the  skin,  and  the 
other  the  mohair  which  occurs  in  wavy  curls  over  the  body, 
attaining  a  length  of  about  ten  inches  after  a  year's 
growth.  The  locks  should  have  their  corkscrew-like  curls 
carried  up  close  to  the  body.  A  wavy  staple  without  much 


THE   ANGORA   GOAT  465 

curl  is  an  evidence  of  coarseness.  The  fleece  has  a  beautiful 
lustre  which  gives  to  mohair  cloth  its  attractive  silky 
character.  This  quality  of  lustre  is  one  of  the  important 
features  of  the  fleece.  A  pure-bred  Angora  of  good  breed- 
ing in  a  year  will  produce  a  fleece  that  will  usually  weigh 
five  or  six  pounds,  inferior  individuals  shearing  about  half 
that  weight.  In  judging  the  Angora,  special  attention 
should  be  given  to  uniformity  in  fineness  and  length  of 
staple,  and  to  the  prevalence  of  kemp,  which  is  regarded 
as  highly  undesirable.  Kemp,  either  white  or  gray,  is  quite 
common  among  Angoras,  and  seriously  injures  the  value 
of  the  fleece. 

The  following  very  unique  standard  and  scale  of  points 
gives  no  descriptive  matter,  but  enables  the  judge  to  classify 
certain  features  within  three  grades  of  merit,  viz.:  "extra 
good,"  credited  with  20  points;  "good,"  credited  with  14; 
and  "medium"  credited  with  8. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOE  THE  ANGORA  GOAT. 

(AilopUMl    by    the    American    Angora    (Joat    Association.) 

Extra 

Good  Good  Medium 

Points  Points  Points 

Fineness  and  lustre  of  fleece       20             14  8 

Quantity  of  fleece 20             14  8 

Freedom  from  kemp        20             14  8 

Size  of  bone,  breadth  and  depth  of  carcass     20            14  8 

Constitution  and  form 20             14  8 

Total  .   100  70  40 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 


THE  MILCH  GOAT. 

THE  goat  is  widely  used  over  the  world  as  a  source  of  milk 
supply  among  the  poorer  people.  Over  much  of  continental 
Europe  Milch  goats  are  a  common  sight  in  the  market  and 
about  the  homes  of  people  of  limited  means.  There  are 
numerous  breeds  or  kinds  of  goats  used  for  this  purpose, 
but  some  are  much  greater  producers  of  milk  than  are 
others. 

The  judging  of  Milch  goats  at  the  present  day,  accord- 
ing to  Pegler,1  is  largely  based  on  a  consideration  of  the 
following  features,  in  the  order  given:  (1)  milking  quali- 
ties; (2)  size  and  shape;  (3)  quality  and  condition;  (4) 
color  and  markings. 

The  milking  quali- 
ties of  the  goat  are 
manifested  in  the 
appearance  of  the 
udder,  and  the  rela- 
tionship of  its  size, 
form  and  quality  to 
the  period  of  lacta- 
tion. The  form  of 
the  udder  as  viewed 
from  behind  should 
be  wide  and  deep, 
pressing  close 
against  the  thighs. 
The  goat  udder  is 

Fig.  254.— "The  milking  qualities  of  the  goat  distinctly  pendant, 
are  manifested  in  the  appearance  of  the  udder."  ,  ,  '  J^ 

(Photo  by  courtesy  Orange  Judd  Company.)  and      has      but      two 

1  The  Book  of  the  Goat.  H.  S.  Holmes  Pegler.  Fourth  edition.  London, 
1910,  p.  276. 


THK   MILCH   GOAT  407 

teats,  so  from  a  side  view  one  should  not  empha- 
size length  as  in  the  case  of  a  cow.  The  udder 
should  be  comparatively  large,  but  of  superior  qual- 
ity, and  this  cannot  be  determined  oftentimes  without 
first  milking  the  goat.  The  udder  should  not  be  fleshy,  but 
should  be  mellow  and  elastic,  and  free  from  hardness  or 
lumps  of  any  kind.  The  teats  should  be  considered  in  re- 
gard to  their  size,  form,  position  on  the  udder  and  conveni- 


ng.  255. — "Much    the   same   conformation   is   sought   as  is   found  in   the 

dairy  cow.'' 

ence  of  handling.  They  should  be  of  comparatively  large 
size,  long,  cylindrical,  and  not  too  wedge-shaped.  The  teats 
should  be  neatly  suspended  at  the  bottom  of  the  udder, 
so  that  they  may  be  conveniently  grasped  and  the  goat 
milked  from  the  rear.  Superfluous  teats  are  undesirable, 
as  they  are  in  the  way,  and  if  they  yield  milk,  this  is  an 
injury  rather  than  a  benefit.  The  ease  with  which  the  goat 


468 


JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 


milks  is  an  important  matter  and  this  cannot  be  determined 
unless  the  judge  performs  the  operation.  With  some  ani- 
mals the  milk  flows  freely,  while  it  is  drawn  from  others 
with  difficulty. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  Milch  goat  naturally  have  an 
important  relationship  to  production.  Pegler  states  that 
size  carries  but  little  recommendation,  and  that  no  judge 

worthy  the  name 
would  think  of  plac- 
ing a  tall,  leggy 
goat,  shallow  of 
frame  and  with  a 
small  udder  over  an- 
other, little  more 
than  half  its  height 
perhaps,  showing  a 
good  shape  and  a 
large  bag.  "Size  is 
a  quality  affecting 
kids  and  goatlings 
rather  than  full- 
grown  goats,  but  as 
we  encourage  it  in 
these  immature  ani- 
mals we  cannot  alto- 
gether ignore  it  when  the  same  animals  become  fully  de- 
veloped. ' '  Much  the  same  conformation  is  sought  as  is  found 
in  the  dairy  cow.  The  type  and  style  of  head  depends  some- 
what on  the  breed,  but  it  should  show  much  quality,  be  wide 
at  the  forehead,  and  gracefully  taper  to  the  muzzle,  Avith 
preferably  no  beard.  The  neck  should  be  slender ;  the  chest 
wide ;  the  withers  sharp ;  the  back  long  and  level ;  the  body 
deep ;  the  hip  bones  wide  apart ;  the  rump  long,  wide  and 
level ;  the  thighs  thin  and  widely  arched  between ;  the  legs 
short  and  well  carried.  The  goat  naturally  tends  to  have 
a  droopy  and  peaked  rump,  and  the  judge  should  discrim- 


Fig.  256. — "The  goat  naturally  tends  to  hnvo  a 
droopy  and  peaked  rump." 


THE   MILCH   GOAT 


469 


inate  severely  against  this  defect.  "If  there  is  a  point  on 
which  judges  are  apt  to  give  exercise  to  their  fancy/'  says 
Pegler,  "it  is  in  regard  to  horns.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
most  breeders,  whether  acting  as  judges  or  buyers,  give 
preference  (other  points  being  about  equal)  to  a  goat  with- 
out horns ;  but  if  these  ornaments,  as  some  consider  them, 
are  present,  they  should  undoubtedly  be  small  and  slender 
rather  than  coarse  and  heavy.  Sharp-pointed  horns  rising 


Fig.  257. — A  Saanen  goat  on  pasture  in  Switzerland. 

perpendicularly  from  the  head,  are  decidedly  objectionable 
from  a  practical  point  of  view,  as  they  are  unquestionably 
in  some  degree  dangerous.  The  best  shaped,  in  the  writer's 
opinion,  are  those  which  lie  close  to  the  head,  curving  back 
like  the  horns  in  some  sheep." 

Quality  and  condition  with  the  Milch  goat  are  important 
factors,  especially  quality.  This  is  shown  in  neatness  of 
form,  fineness  of  bone,  in  a  close,  glossy  coat  of  soft,  fine 


470 


JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 


hair,  and  in  a  thin,  mellow  hide.  Quality  has  an  important 
influence  in  securing  success  where  real  merit  is  concerned. 
Condition  indicates  the  degree  of  flesh  and  bloom,  and  this 
will,  of  necessity,  influence  the  judge  more  or  less.  It  does 
not,  however,  affect  the  intrinsic  merit  of  an  animal.  Other 


Fig.    258. — Toggenburg    buck     "Crown    Prince."       (Photo    by 
courtesy  Prof.  F.  K.  Cooke  of  Illinois.) 


things  being  equal,  the  animal  showing  the  best  condition 
should  receive  preference. 

The  color  and  markings  of  Milch  goats  have  very  little 
bearing  upon  the  exhibits,  unless  in  a  special  breed  class. 
Excepting  with  certain  Swiss  breeds,  goats  are  not  usually 
judged  from  a  breed  point  of  view.  Color  is  purely  a  mat- 
ter of  taste  or  fancy. 


THi;   MILCH   GOAT 


471 


The  Saanen  breed  of  Milch  goats  comes  from  the  valley 
of  that  name  in  Switzerland,  though  widely  distributed  in 
that  country  to-day.  It  is  the  largest  Swiss  breed,  is  pure 
white  or  creamy  white  in  color,  and  usually  hornless.  It  is 
very  attractive,  having  breedy  looking  heads,  slender 
necks,  full  chest;-!,  sharp  withers,  strong  backs,  deep 
bodies,  and  fairly  wide  and  level  rumps,  and  large  udders 


Fiji.  259. — Toggenburg  milch  goat.     (Photo  by  courtesy  Mr.  Will  C.  Clos.) 

carried  high.  There  are  many  excellent  milkers  of  this 
breed.  Thompson  gives  a  record  of  ten  Saanen  goats  that 
made  annual  records  of  from  423  to  951  quarts. 

The  Toggenburg  breed  of  Milch  goats  is  a  native  of 
the  Toggenburg  valley,  in  Switzerland.  This  goat  is  a 
medium  brown  in  color,  with  a  white  band  passing  along 
down  each  side  of  the  face  from  eyes  to  mouth.  The  breed 
is  usually  hornless.  The  head  is  broad  of  forehead,  has 


472  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

some  dish  of  face,  and  the  ears  are  of  moderate  size  and 
usually  carried  erect.  The  males  have  a  coarse  beard  and 
are  rather  more  free  of  offensive  odor  than  male  goats  of 
other  breeds.  Toggenburgs  differ  in  character  of  coat  of  hair, 
some  animals  having  rough,  long  coats,  others  short  ones, 
and  still  others,  coats  of  a  medium  character.  The  udder 
seems  capable  of  great  capacity.  When  full  it  is  carried 
high  between  the  legs  and  has  large,  long  teats.  Many  of 
these  goats  produce  from  four  to  five  quarts  of  milk  a  day, 
while  the  best  yield  as  high  as  seven  quarts. 


PART  V.— JUDGING  SWINE. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  HOG. 

The  skeleton  of  the  hog"  is  characterized  by  certain  in- 
teresting features.  The  skull  varies  considerably  in  length 
and  profile,  that  of  the  wild  boar  being  long  and  slanting, 
while  some  domestic  breeds  have  very  short  skulls  with  a 
deeply  concave  face.  The  frontal  bone  rises  from  the 
center  of  the  face  into  a  high  crest,  while  at  the  opposite 
end,  at  the  snout,  between  the  nostrils,  is  a  small  prenasal 
bone  shaped  like  a  three-sided  prism.  Perhaps  the  most 
striking  feature  of  the  skeleton  is  the  skull.  Youatt  makes 
the  following  interesting  reference  to  it  and  its  special 
purpose  :J 

* '  A  very  slight  comparison  of  the  face  of  this  animal  with 
that  of  any  other  will  prove  that  strength  is  the  object  in 
view;  strength  toward  the  inferior  part  of  the  bone.  In 
point  of  fact,  the  snout  of  the  hog  is  his  spade,  with  which 
in  his  natural  state,  he  digs  and  grubs  in  the  ground  for 
roots,  earth  nuts,  worms,  etc.  And  to  render  his  implement 
more  perfect,  an  extra  bone  is  added  to  the  nasal  bone. 
This  one  is  short  and  trificial  and  placed  directly  before 
the  nasal  bones,  with  which,  and  with  the  edges  of  the  an- 
terior maxillary,  it  is  connected  by  strong  ligaments,  car- 
tilages and  muscles.  This  bone  has  been  termed  the  spade 
bone,  snout  bone,  and  by  some  writers  the  vomer,  from  its 
supposed  resemblance  to  a  plowshare.  By  it  and  its  carti- 
laginous attachments  is  the  snout  rendered  strong  as  well 

i  The  Pig,  1847,  p.   78. 

473 


474  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

as  flexible,  and  far  more  efficient  than  it  could  otherwise  be ; 
and  the  hog  often  contrives  to  give  both  farmers  and  gar- 
deners very  unpleasant  proofs  of  its  efficiency  by  plowing 
up  deep  furrows  in  newly  sown  fields  and  grubbing  up 
the  soil  in  all  directions  in  search  of  his  living  and  dead 
food." 

There  are  six  short,  wide  and  powerful  cervical  ver- 
tebra?, 14  or  15  thoracic  vertebrae,  and  six  or  seven  lumbar 
vertebrae  The  sacrum  usually  consists  of  four  vertebra? 
which,  with  age,  become  fused  together,  and  there  are  from 
20  to  26  vertebrae  in  the  coccyx.  There  are  14  or  15  pairs 
of  ribs  which  have  a  strong  curve  in  the  improved  breeds. 
The  thorax  is  longer  and  more  barrel-shaped  than  in  horse 
or  cattle.  The  shoulder  blade  (scapula)  is  quite  wide  and 
has  a  considerable  bony  prominence  on  its  face.  The  prin- 
cipal leg  bones  are  comparatively  short  and  strong.  The 
bones  of  the  feet,  that  is  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal 
bones,  are  in  four  sets.  The  hog  stands  on  the  two  larger 
central  toes,  while  two  smaller  ones,  known  by  stockmen 
as  the  ' '  dew  claws, ' '  are  behind  and  slightly  elevated  above 
the  level  of  the  middle  toes. 

The  teeth  of  the  hog  number  44,  there  being  in  each  jaw 
14  molars,  six  incisors  and  two  canines.  The  molars  in- 
crease in  size  from  front  to  rear.  The  incisors  are  small 
and  have  a  very  slanting  position  in  the  lower  jaw.  The 
upper  incisors  are  somewhat  curved.  The  canine  teeth 
are  curved  and  long,  mature  boars  having  tusks  that  are 
very  powerful  and  sharp.  The  lower  canines  in  the  boar 
sometimes  reach  a  length  of  eight  inches  or  more. 

Determining  the  age  of  swine  by  means  of  the  teeth  is 
not  easy,  neither  is  it  necessary  under  ordinary  conditions. 
In  fact  the  mouth  of  the  hog  is  less  easily  examined  than  is 
that  of  other  domestic  animals.  If  one  wishes  to  examine 
the  mouth,  the  best  method  is  to  place  a  slip-noose  about  the 
upper  jaw,  drawing  it  fairly  tight,  and  fastening  the  other 
end  of  the  rope  to  a  post.  The  hog  will  pull  back,  squealing 
hard,  with  the  mouth  open,  under  which  conditions  the  teeth 


476  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

can  be  examined.  The  following  very  clear  statement  of  age 
of  teething  in  swine,  is  by  Dr.  D.  Mclntosh.2 

"At  birth,  the  young  pig  has  eight  teeth — four  tem- 
porary incisors  and  four  temporary  tushes ;  about  the  tenth 
day  appear  the  second  and  third  temporary  molars ;  at  one 
month,  four  incisors  are  out,  two  in  the  upper  and  two  in 
the  lower  jaw ;  about  the  sixth  week,  the  temporary  foremost 
molars  are  visible ;  at  three  months,  two  more  are  added  to 
each  jaw;  at  this  period  all  the  milk  teeth  are  in  position. 
Time  is  then  allowed  for  the  jaws  and  teeth  to  grow,  and  at 
six  months,  in  the  majority  of  pigs,  a  small  tooth  comes  up 
on  either  side  of  the  lower  jaw,  behind  the  temporary  tushes, 
between  them  and  the  molars;  and  in  the  upper  jaw, 
directly  in  front  of  the  molars ;  at  six  months,  the  fourth 
molar  appears  through  the  gums ;  at  nine  months  the  corner 
incisors  are  displaced  and  permanent  ones  make  their 
appearance.  The  permanent  tushes  are  also  cut  at  this  time, 
and  the  fifth  molar  on  each  side  of  both  jaws  makes  its 
appearance.  At  one  year  the  middle  incisors  are  replaced 
by  permanent  ones,  and  by  this  time  the  tushes  are  of  a 
considerable  size ;  at  this  period  the  temporary  incisors  are 
shed  and  replaced  by  permanent  ones ;  at  eighteen  months, 
in  most  pigs,  dentition  is  complete,  as  the  lateral  incisors 
and  the  sixth  molar  are  up." 

The  stomach  of  the  hog  has  a  capacity  of  about  one  and 
a  half  to  two  gallons.  Sisson  states3  that  its  left  part  is 
large  and  rounded,  while  the  right  part  is  small,  and  bends 
sharply  upward  to  join  the  small  intestine.  There  is  a  large, 
blind  pouch  in  the  upper  end  of  the  stomach,  the  diverticu- 
lum  ventriculi.  The  stomach  of  the  hog  is  much  more 
simple  than  that  of  the  ox  or  sheep. 

The  intestine  of  the  hog  is  about  fifteen  times  the  length 
of  the  body,  the  small  part  being  from  50  to  65  feet  long 
and  the  larger  12  to  15  feet  long. 

The  liver  is  relatively  large,  weighing  about  four  pounds 

2  Diseases  of  Swine,  1897,  p.  22. 

8  The  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Animals,  1914,  p.  483. 


THE   ANATOMY   OF   THE   HOG 


477 


in  the  mature  animal.     The  h«irl  is  small,  usually 
less   than   a    pound.      'Pile    /.-/V///r//,si    are    smooth    and 
shaped,  about  twice  as  long  as  broad.     The  bladder  is  thin 
and  has  considerable  capacity. 

The  skin  of  the  hog  in  the  improved  breeds  varies  in 
character,  and  ranges  in  thickness  from  one  to  two  milli- 
meters (.04 — .08  inch).  The  sebaceous  glands  in  the  skin, 
according  to  Sisson,  are  small,  and  not  so  abundant  as  with 
most  other  animals,  while  the  sweat  glands,  to  the  contrary, 
are  large,  yellow  or  brownish  in  color,  and  may  often  be 
seen  with  the  naked  eye.  The  exterior  layer  of  the  skin  is 
much  tougher  and  denser  than  with  other  domestic  animals, 
and  contains  many  large  pores.  Numerous  fine  blood  ves- 
sels, capillaries  and  nerves  extend  through  the  delicate 
under  layer  of  skin.  Eeferring  to  the  quality  of  the  skin, 
Youatt  states 4  that  in  some  of  the  large,  old  breeds  it  is 
thick,  coarse,  tough  and  almost  as  impenetrable,  in  compari- 
son, as  the  hide  of  a  rhinoceros ;  while  in  many  of  the  smaller 
breeds,  and  particularly  in  those  which  have  a  considerable 
admixture  of  Asiatic  blood,  and  in  the  Chinese  pigs  them- 
selves, it  is  soft,  fine  and  delicate,  and  bears  no  slight  degree 
of  resemblance  to  the  skin  of  a  human  being. 

The  hair  of  the  hog  is  quite  variable,  according  to  the  in- 
dividual, or  to  the 
part  of  the  body  on 
which  it  grows.  The 
coarsest,  heaviest 
hairs  are  found 
along  the  back  over 
the  spine,  and  espe- 
cially over  the  neck 
and  shoulders. 
These  hairs  are 
known  as  bristles, 
and  in  the  case  of 
male  hogs,  they 


Fig.  261. — "Some  individuals  have  coats  of 
curly  hair."  This  is  a  Lincolnshire  Curly  Coated 
pig,  a  British  breed. 


<  The  Pig,  1847,  p.  107. 


478  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

are  sometimes  raised  more  or  less  erect  in  time  of  anger 
or  excitement.  The  bristles  are  often  very  coarse  and  long 
especially  on  boars  of  large  size  that  show  much  masculinity. 
The  finer,  softer  hair  is  found  along  the  sides  of  the  body. 
There  is  considerable  range  of  difference  in  the  character  of 
the  hair,  even  in  case  of  the  same  breed.  Some  individuals 
have  coats  of  curly  hair,  but  this  is  not  popular  among 
producers  of  pure-bred  swine,  the  straight,  smooth  coat  be- 
ing preferred.  Occasionally  on  a  hog,  the  hair  on  the  back, 
at  some  spot  not  over  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  will 
be  more  or  less  awry  or  twisted,  forming  what  is  known  as 
a  swirl  among  stockmen.  While  the  swirl  is  of  no  special 
significance,  breeders  of  pure-bred  stock  discriminate 
against  it,  and  sell  animals  having  this  peculiarity  for  less 
money  than  they  otherwise  would.  The  hair  about  the 
head  is  also  often  coarse,  short  and  wiry. 


CHAPTER  XL VI. 

THE  PORK  CARCASS  AND  ITS  CUTS. 

To  be  able  to  judge  swine  intelligently,  it  is  necessary  lo 
understand  into  what  the  carcass  of  the  hog,  as  a  product  of 
the  feeder's  art,  may  be  transformed  in  its  final  analysis. 
The  average  man  knows  that  from  the  carcass  of  the  hog 
are  taken  hams,  pork  chops,  spare  ribs,  etc.,  but  he  little 
knows  or  cares  for  further  information.  The  qualified 
judge,  however,  understands  that  the  carcass  of  the  hog 
cuts  into  parts  of  different  values  and  for  various  domestic 
uses.  Further,  he  must  learn,  as  a  preliminary  part. of  the 
study  of  animal  form,  that  in  order  to  have  a  carcass  of 
first  quality  and  value,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  live  animal 
of  first  quality  and  high-class  conformation.  High-class 
meat  is  a  product  of  quality,  and  high-priced  cuts  come 
from  the  parts  that  the  intelligent  breeder  attempts  to  re- 
produce in  the  highest  degree  of  perfection. 

The  dressed  carcass  of  the  hog  shows  a  smaller  per  cent 
of  waste  than  any  other  farm  animal.  Ordinarily,  the  hog 
will  dress  out  close  to  80  per  cent  carcass  and  20  per  cent 
offal  for  fattened  stock.  The  older  and  more  heavily  fat- 
tened, the  greater  the  per  cent  of  carcass  to  offal.  In  the 
prize  hog  carcasses  at  one  International  Live  Stock  Ex- 
position, the  smallest  per  cent  of  carcass  to  offal  was  83.2, 
and  the  greatest  88.3  per  cent.  A  record  of  85  per  cent 
carcass  and  15  per  cent  offal  at  an  American  hog  carcass 
show,  is  not  at  all  remarkable.  At  the  European  shows, 
such  as  the  Smithfield  of  London,  where  the  bacon  type 
prevails,  the  dressing  out  percentage  is  considerably  Irs; 
than  the  highest  American  records.  The  weights  of  carcass 
vary  greatly,  but  160  to  250  pounds  are  popular,  while  ii1 
the  market  desires  lard,  a  still  heavier  weight  up  to  400 

479 


480  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

pounds  gives  a  fat  back  and  a  high  dressing  out  weight  ii! 
well  fattened.  Figures  show  that  the  hog  has  less  waste  in 
killing  than  any  other  farm  animal.  The  butcher  in  selling 
the  carcass,  has  much  less  waste  than  with  either  beef  or 
mutton,  for  as  a  rule  he  receives  a  good  price  for  his  extra 
fat  or  leaf  lard. 

The  wholesale  cuts  of  the  pork  carcass  especially  in- 
terest the  student  of  animal  conformation.  He  should  be 
familiar  with  these,  where  they  come  from  and  their  relative 
values.  A  knowledge  of  the  retail  cuts,  while  desirable,  is 
less  necessary. 

The  pork  carcass  when  ready  for  cutting  up  consists  of 
the  body,  legs,  feet,  head  and  ears,  complete,  less  the  internal 
organs,  excepting  the  kidneys.  The  body  is  split  completely 
through  on  the  under  line,  from  the  tail  to  brisket.  From 
this  point  there  is  some  slight  difference  in  cutting,  accord- 
ing to  the  market  classes  and  uses.  However,  in  general 
practice,  the  carcass  is  cut  into  two  sides.  Sometimes  the 
head  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and  sometimes  it  is  cut 
off  entirely  at  the  neck. 

The  parts  of  the  pork  carcass  are  not  many,  and  are 
easily  separated  into  their  several  groups.  In  the  large 
packing-houses,  a  common  sight  is  to  see  a  half  of  a  dressed 
hog  drop  from  a  floor  above  to  a  large  chopping  block,  about 
which  stand  three  or  four  men  with  great  cleavers  attached 
to  axe-like  handles.  With  one  well-directed  blow,  each  man 
in  turn  strikes  the  carcass,  so  that  in  a  trice  the  side  before 
them  is  neatly  reduced  to  standard  wholesale  cuts,  and 
shoved  on  to  be  cared  for  by  the  sorters.  The  wholesale 
parts  of  dressed  hogs  may  be  divided  into  the  following 
general  classes :  Hams,  sides,  bellies,  backs,  loins,  shoulders, 
tutts  and  plates,  and  miscellaneous. 

The  grading1  of  pork  cuts,  says  Prof.  L.  D.  Hall,1  is  more 
complex  than  that  of  other  meats  since  it  involves  not  only 
their  quality,  shape,  proportions  of  fat  and  lean,  and 

1  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Meats.     Bull.  147,  Illinois  Agr.  Exp.  Station, 
1910.     This  is  a  very  valuable  publication,  beautifully  and  extensively  illustrated. 


Fig.  202. — "The  sides  of  Hie  hog  carcass:  1,  ham;  2,  middle  piece;  3, 
belly  piece;  4.  shoulder;  5,  Boston  butt;  6,  head.  (Photo  by  courtesy 
«',.lletf»»  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  Ohio  State  University.) 


481 


482  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

weight,  but  also  the  styles  of  cutting  and  methods  of  pack- 
ing by  which  they  are  prepared  for  different  classes  of  trade. 
Many  of  the  grade  names  refer  merely  to  different  methods 
of  cutting  and  curing;  but  since  they  are  applied  only  to 
cuts  of  specified  quality,  thickness  or  weight,  the  grades  are 
in  reality  based  on  the  latter  factors  to  a  large  extent.  The 
various  cuts  differ  considerably  as  to  methods  of  grading; 
consequently  an  adequate  explanation  of  the  factors  in- 
volved, and  their  relative  importance,  can  be  presented  only 
by  describing  the  grades  of  each  class. 

As  a  matter  of  simplicity  and  convenience,  the  following 
parts  will  be  briefly  referred  to  as  representing  standard 
cuts. 

The  hams  are  cut  off  just  in  front  of  the  point  of  the  hips, 
and  are  neatly  trimmed  as  may  be  necessary.  However, 
there  are  two  distinct  types  of  ham  cuts,  the  one  given  being 
the  American  cut.  The  English  and  Scotch  have  a  longer 
cut  beyond  the  point  of  hip.  The  leg  should  then  be  cut 
off,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  severed  just  above  the  hock,  and 
in  other  cases  just  below  it.  Hams  pack  better  with  a 
shorter  leg. 

The  middle  piece  is  the  entire  part  between  the  end  of 
ham  at  hip,  and  back  of  shoulder.  This  is  separated  from 
the  shoulder  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs.  This  middle 
piece  is  of  great  importance,  because  it  contains  the  side 
from  which  bacon  is  produced,  while  its  upper  part  fur- 
nishes pork  chops  or  roast  pieces.  Along  the  back  in  fat 
hogs  is  a  layer  of  white  fat,  sometimes  over  three  inches 
thick.  This  is  what  is  known  as  a  fat  back.  The  packer 
slices  this  off  in  long  strips,  from  which  lard  is  made.  Be- 
low the  back  is  the  loin  piece,  which  furnishes  some  of  the 
most  popular  fresh  meat  of  the  carcass.  In  the  lower  third 
is  a  part  termed  the  belly  strip.  Bacon  of  various  grades 
and  classes  is  made  from  the  entire  middle  strip,  and  some 
of  the  highest  class  bacon,  such  as  the  Wiltshire  side,  con- 
sists of  the  side,  ham  and  shoulder  left  in  one  piece,  and 
then  specially  treated  for  the  purpose.  However,  such  a 


THE   PORK   CARCASS   AND   ITS   CUTS 


483 


type  of  bacon  is  not  com- 
mon in  America,  the  smaller 
side,  free  of  shoulder  and 
ham,  being  used. 

The  shoulder  is  separated 
from  the  head,  just  back  of 
the  ears,  and  the  leg  is  cut 
off  above  the  knee  joint. 
The  shoulder  is  prepared 
into  several  styles  of  cuts, 
and  is  often  sold  under 
the  trade  name  of  picnic  or 
California  ham.  Pieces 
called  butts  are  cut  from 
the  top  of  the  shoulder  and 
from  the  jowl. 

The  head  is  not  very 
valuable,  but  is  used  as 


Swifts  StandardPadcCuts 
Chicago Jftyle 


Fly. 263. — "The  various  cuts  differ  con 
stderably  as  to  methods  of  grading." 


It 


fresh  meat,  for  scrapple,  sausage  and  head  cheese, 
also  pickled. 

The  relative  amounts  and  values  of  pork  cuts,  as  secured 
from  a  250-pound  hog,  that  dressed  out  about  80  per  cent 
;nv  thus  reported  by  Wallace's  Farmer  (Dec.  8,  1911)  : 


CUTS  AND  PRODUCTS 
Hams 

Weight 
Ibs. 
35 

Price 
per  Ib. 
$0  17 

Shoulders 

30 

.10 

Sides  —  -thick  

25 

.10 

Sides  —  thin     

.      ..         21 

.20 

Lard         -.  .      . 

.      ..         30 

.15 

Sp;m>  ribs,  head,  feet,  backbone 

S:uisa"-e.  . 

.      ..         40 
18 

.07 
.20 

Total 


199    Av.  $0.14.1 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 


THE  COMMON  TYPES  OF  SWINE. 

ACCORDING  to  present  standards,  all  breeds  and  kinds  of 
hogs  may  be  divided  into  two  groups  or  types,  as  they  are 
commonly  called.  By  far  the  most  common,  especially  in 
America,  is  known  as  the  lard  type.  The  essential  features 
in  this  case  include  shortness  of  head  and  neck.  Consider- 
able relative  width  of  back  and  fullness  of  ham,  depth  of 
body,  shortness  of  leg,  and  when  well  fattened,  a  thick  layer 
of  fat  over  back,  sides  and  hams.  The  ~bacon  type  usually 
exhibits  length  in  various  parts,  as  shown  in  the  head,  neck, 
body  and  legs.  In  this  type  the  back  is  narrower,  the  length 
of  side  more  pronounced,  and  the  hams  lack  the  thickness 
seen  in  the  other  case.  There  are  certain  distinguishing 


Fig.  264.— "All  breeds  and  kinds  of  hogs  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups  or  types." 

484 


THE   COMMON   TYPES   OF   SWINE  485 

features,  irrespective  of  breed,  in  each  type.  The  lard  hog 
is,  as  the  name  implies,  a  producer  of  excess  fat  or  lard,  is 
phlegmatic  of  temperament  and  tends  to  produce  few  rather 
than  many  young  at  birth.  The  bacon  hog  is  valued  for  its 
length  of  side,  from  which  bacon  is  secured,  is  very  active 
in  temperament;,  and  usually  produces  large  litters.  The 
lard  hog,  in  its  more  highly  developed  form,  is  a  product  of 
the  great  corn-growing  section  of  the  Central  United  States, 
and  is  well  represented  in  the  vast  majority  of  the  hogs  that 
find  their  way  into  the  American  slaughter  house.  The 
bacon  type  is  produced  in  only  a  small  way  in  this  country, 
while  it  is  quite  universal  in  Europe,  where  a  leaner  type  of 
hog  is  in  demand,  and  where  bacon  is  an  important  item  of 
consumption.  All  breeding  operations  which  result  in  re- 
ducing the  length  of  head,  of  body,  and  of  legs,  simply 
emphasize  lard  conformation.  The  best  examples  of  the 
bacon  type  have  long  heads,  great  proportionate  length  of 
body,  and  long  legs.  Very  fattening  foods,  like  corn,  pro- 
mote the  lard  type,  while  the  small  cereals,  especially  barley, 
oats  and  the  by-products  of  wheat,  and  skim  milk,  promote 
the  bacon  type. 


CHAPTER  XLVIII. 

JUDGING  THE  LARD  TYPE  OF  SWINE  BY  THE 
SCALE  OF  POINTS. 

The  scale  of  points  for  the  lard  type  or  fat  hog,  which 
follows,  may  be  used  for  the  first  study  of  this  animal. 
The  hog  to  be  scored  will  be  analyzed  with  the  aid  of  this 
standard : 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  FAT  HOGS  OF  LAED  TYPE. 

Standard  of  Score  of 
SCALE  OF  POINTS  Perfect         Hog 

Score       Studied 
A— GENERAL  APPEARANCE,  34  Points: 

Weight:  Score  according  to  age,  175  Ibs.  for  6  mos. ; 

300  Ibs.  at  1  year 4  .... 

Form,     broad,     deep,     low,     symmetrical,     compact, 

standing    well 10  .... 

Quality,  hair  fine,  skin  smooth,  no  coarseness  of  bone      10  .... 

Condition,    deep,    firm,    even    covering    flesh,    giving 

smooth  finish         10  .... 

B— HEAD  AND  NECK,  7  Points: 

Snout,  neither  coarse  nor  long 1  .... 

Face,     wide     between     eyes,     cheeks     full,     without 

wrinkles         .  .       1  .... 

Eyes,  mild,  good  size,  to  be  easily  seen 1  .... 

Ears,  not  coarse,  of  medium  size,  neatly  attached.  .  1  .... 

Jowl,   smooth,  broad,   full  to  shoulders 1  .... 

Neck,  thick,  short,  broad  on  top        2  .... 

C— FOREQUARTERS,  12  Points: 

Shoulders,  broad,  deep,  full,  smooth,  compact  on  top        fi  .... 

Breast,  wide,  roomy 4  .... 

Legs,   straight,    short,    strong,   wide  apart,  well  set, 

pastern  upright,    standing  well  upon    toes      .  .         2  .... 

D — BODY,  32  Points: 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth,  flanks  well  filled    .  .  3  .... 
Back,  slightly  arched,  very  broad,  thickly  and  evenly 

fleshed            9  .... 

Loin,  wide  as  back,  full  and  strong 8  .... 

Sides,  fairly  deep,  not  too  long,  smooth  and  full  ham 

to    shoulder 6  .... 

Belly,  straight,  wide,  trim,  not  paunchy 4  .... 

Flanks,  full  and  low 2  .... 

486 


JUDGING  THE  LARD  TYPE  OF  SWINE 


SCALE   OF  POINTS 


Standard  of 
Points 
Scored 
E— HINDQUARTERS,  15  Points: 

Rump,  same  width  as  back,  long,  level,  wide .  .       .  .         3 
Hams,  deep,  wide,  thick,  not  wrinkled,  fleshed  well 

to   hock         10 

Legs,  straight,   short,   strong,   wide  apart,   well   set, 

pasterns  upright,  strong,  standing  well  on  toes        2 


Total    points 


100 


487 

Score  of 

Hog 
Studied 


The  general  appearance  of  the  hog  first  requires  atten- 
tion. The  animal  should  be  kept  more  or  less  in  motion,  that 


Fig.  265. — THE  POINTS  OF  THE  HOG. 

it  may  be  seen  from  various  points  of  view.  The  judge  may 
quietly  move  it  about  in  a  small  area,  so  as  to  comprehend 
the  size,  proportion,  quality  and  condition.  One  should 
look  down  over  the  back  to  note  the  width  of  body  from 
above,  while  from  one  side,  length  and  depth  of  body,  and 
carriage  of  head,  back  and  legs  are  especially  to  be  noted. 
From  front  or  rear  one  sees  thickness  of  body  at  each  end, 
with  placings  of  legs  and  feet.  The  weight  is  not  impor- 


488 


JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 


tant,  excepting  as  associated  with  age.  A  pig  that  has  been 
well  fed  and  cared  for  after  being  weaned,  should  gain 
in  weight  from  three-fourths  of  a  pound  to  one  pound  a 
day.  A  satisfactory  weight  of  a  fat  hog  at  six  months  of 
age  is  about  175  pounds,  and  at  twelve  months  is  about 
300  pounds.  The  market  demands  as  to  weight  vary,  some- 
times heavy  hogs  being  wanted,  while  again  lightweights 
are  preferred.  In  general,  250  pounds  is  a  satisfactory 


Fig.  266. — "This  thick,  deep  form  suggests  the  very  greatest  meat-carrying 

capacity." 

weight.  In  the  great  Chicago  hog  market,  where  nearly 
nine  million  hogs  have  been  received  in  a  year,  the  average 
weight  is  not  far  from  225  pounds  per  head.  "Winter 
weights  usually  run  lighter  than  those  of  summer  by  twenty- 
five  pounds  or  so.  With  a  standard  of  four  points  for  per- 
fect weight,  an  animal  weighing  much  under  the  standard 
should  be  scored  accordingly.  Suppose  a  weight  of 
225  pounds  at  one  year,  then  three  points  might  show  the 
measurement  for  weight  of  the  pig  being  scored.  A  greater 


JUDGING    THE   LAUD   TYPE   OF   S\VINK  489 

weight  than  300  pounds  is  not  usually  to  be  regarded  as 
a  fault,  and  hence  should  be  given  perfect  score. 

The  form  of  the  lard  hog-  should  be  broad,  deep,  low  set, 
symmetrical,  smooth  and  compact,  supported  on  legs  that 
are  strong  and  squarely  placed.  Thickness  and  smoothness 
of  outline  are  essential,  with  the  parts  most  valuable  to  the 
butcher  highly  developed,  especially  the  back,  sides  and 
hams.  A  general  view  shows  the  sides  of  the  body  widely 


Fig.  267. — "The  hair  serves  as  a  protection  in  summer  and  winter  and 
should  be  abundant  rather  than  sparse."  (Photo  by  courtesy  Mr.  L.  E. 
Troeger.) 

separated  yet  parallel,  no  wider  in  front  than  behind,  while 
the  depth  is  such  as  to  allow  but  little  space  between  the 
belly  and  ground.  This  thick,  deep  form  suggests  the  very 
greatest  meat-carrying  capacity.  In  fact,  Europeans  and 
city  people  have  often  regarded  the  form  of  the  lard  type 
as  a  monstrosity.  As  expressed  in  its  most  perfect  form, 
in  a  250-pound  pig  that  has  been  well  fed  there  may  be  an 
excess  of  fat;  but  such  a  form  most  perfectly  illustrates 
early  maturity,  a  strong  development  of  the  parts  of  car- 


490 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


cass  most  in  demand  by  consumers,  and,  as  a  rule,  most 
profitable  feeding.  The  injury  to  form  due  to  long-con- 
tinued and  unwise  feeding  should  cast  no  reflections  on  the 
ideal  of  the  lard  type  of  hog. 

The  quality  of  the  lard  hog  is  seen  in  the  fineness  of  hair, 
smoothness  of  skin  and  refinement  of  bone.  The  hair  is  one 
of  the  best  indicators  of  quality.  There  are,  perhaps,  greater 

variations  in  qual- 
ity of  hair  on  the 
hog  than  any  other 
class  of  farm  ani- 
mals. This  has  al- 
ready been  referred 
to  on  page  477.  The 
hair  on  barrows  or 
sows  should  be 
smooth,  not  coarse 
nor  wiry,  and 
should  have  a  glos- 
sy appearanc e 
without  special 
hair  serves  as  a 
and  should  be 


Fig.  268. — "Creases,  seams  or  wrinkles  become 
more  evident  with  maturity.  They  prevail  along 
the  sides  of  the  body  and  particularly  about  the 
shoulder,  throat  and  face." 


treatment  aside  from  feeding.  The 
protection  in  summer  and  winter, 
abundant  rather  than  sparse.  Hogs  that  kill  out  best  do 
not  have  notably  coarse  hair.  Too  fine  hair,  however,  is 
undesirable,  indicating  an  animal  of  over  refinement,  that 
will  not  hold  up  to  strong  feeding.  The  skin  is  an  impor- 
tant indicator  of  quality.  It  should  be  smooth  and  free  of 
wrinkles.  Creases,  seams  or  wrinkles  (different  names  for 
the  same  thing)  become  more  evident  with  maturity.  They 
prevail  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  particularly  about 
the  shoulder,  throat  and  face.  Creases  sometimes  occur  in 
the  thicker  skin  at  the  points  mentioned,  that  may  have  a 
depth  of  one-fourth  inch  or  more.  As  hair  usually  grows 
from  these  creases  or  seams,  it  is  very  difficult  to  scald 
and  remove  satisfactorily  from  such  a  hog  at  killing 
time.  Inasmuch  as  a  large  per  cent  of  the  hogs  slaughtered 


JUDGING  THE  LARD  TYPE  OF  SWIXK      J<)l 

in  America,  after  scalding  are  passed  through  an  artificial 
scraping  machine  to  remove  the  hair,  it  can  easily  be  under- 
stood why  buyers  prefer  hogs  with  smooth  skins  rather  than 
rough,  creasy  ones.  The  skin  of  the  hog  should  also  be  mel- 
low and  uniform  in  quality  over  the  entire  body.  The  skin 
about  the  shoulder,  however,  is  tougher  and  thicker  than  it 
is  elsewhere.  The  pressure  of  the  finger  tips,  or  even  of 
a  cane,  on  the  skin  at  different  points,  will  clearly 
demonstrate  this  difference.  On  the  males,  the  skin  often 
assumes  great  thickness  and  hardness  at  the  shoulders, 
forming  what  the  swine  breeder  calls  the  '  *  shields. ' '  These 
are  essentially  an  inheritance  from  the  wild  hog,  and  serve 
as  a  protection  from  injury  of  the  vital  parts  while  fighting. 
Boars  fight  by  striking  with  their  heads  and  tusks  against 
the  heads  and  shoulders  of  their  opponents.  The  strong 
tusks  of  the  boar  cannot  easily  tear  through  this  shield.  In 
the  improved  breeds  of  to-day,  as  reflected  in  the  case  of  the 
fat  market  hog,  heavy,  rough  skin  at  the  shoulder  is  objec- 
tionable. The  fat  barrow,  for  example,  should  have  a  skin 
exhibiting  but  little  variation  in  quality  at  shoulder 
or  ham.  A  scurfy,  scaly  condition  of  skin  may  be 
due  to  various  causes,  but  is  decidedly  objection- 
able. In  hot  climates  white  breeds  are  often  troubled 
with  sun  scald  and  scurfiness,  for  which  reason  hogs 
of  this  color  are  not  popular  in  the  south.  A  black 
or  red  skin  absorbs  heat  from  the  air  more  quickly  than 
does  the  white,  but  these  also  radiate  the  heat  more  rapidly, 
which  process  serves  to  cool  the  body.  This  explains  why, 
in  the  tropics,  the  dark-skinned  hog  is  more  popular  than 
the  white,  being  associated  with  more  comfort  in  keeping 
cool. 

The  character  of  the  bone  in  the  hog  is  an  important 
indicator  of  quality.  The  bones  about  the  head  and  legs 
serve  as  the  index  of  quality.  If  large  and  coarse,  in  pro- 
portion to  size  of  body,  then  quality  is  lacking,  for  beyond 
a  certain  indefinable  point,  all  excess  bone  is  undesirable, 
as  representing  waste  from  a  food  point  of  view.  Bone  in 


492 


JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 


the  hog,  however,  is  regarded  somewhat  differently  from 
what  it  is  with  other  farm  animals.  The  demand  is  for  a 
large,  smooth  bone,  of  quality,  free  from  coarseness  at 
joints.  In  fact,  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  too  much  quality, 
as  shown  in  small  and  fine  bone,  is  far  too  common  with  im- 
proved breeds  of  swine  to-day.  The  fat  hog,  weighing  250 
to  300  pounds,  requires  a  strong  bone,  to  support  so  great 
a  weight  in  such  small  compass.  In  judging  quality  of 
bone,  insist  on  plenty  of  diameter  in  the  shank  bones  half- 


Fig.  269. — "In  judging  quality  of  bone,  insist  on  plenty  of  diameter  in  the 
shank  bones  half-way  between  ankle  and  knee  or  hock." 

way  between  ankle  and  knee  or  hock.  Yet  one  need  not 
place  too  much  stress  on  this  where  hogs  are  fattened, 
ready  for  the  butcher.  It  is  far  more  important  with  breed- 
ing stock. 

The  condition  of  the  lard  hog  refers  to  the  extent  to 
which  fattening  has  been  carried.  When  the  hog  is  in 
prime  condition,  the  flesh  is  laid  on  smoothly  and  uniformly 
and  is  firm  to  the  touch.  Fat  hogs  are  frequently  too  fat 
and  are  perhaps  soft  and  flabby.  Also,  occasionally  when 
hogs  are  fed  too  long  and  get  in  high  condition,  the  fat 
along  the  sides,  especially  at  the  upper  part  of  rib  near  the 


JUDGING  THE   LARD  TYPE  OF  SWINE  493 

shoulders,  slips  down  toward  the  end  of  the  rib.  This  gives 
a  sharply  sloping  or  bevelled  appearance  on  each  side  of 
the  upper  third  of  the  body,  the  rounded  outline  that  at 
one  time  prevailed  having  disappeared.  If  the  hog  is  in 
ideal  condition,  there  is  a  trim  and  attractive  finish  of 
appearance  that  is  unmistakable.  The  extremely  fat  hog 
in  the  show  ring  is  not  the  butcher's  ideal  as  to  condition, 
unless  he  is  seeking  a  heavyweight  from  which  a  special 


Fig.  270. — "The  extremely  fat  hog  in   the  show  ring  is  not  the  butcher's 
ideal  as  to  condition." 

yield  of  lard  is  desired.  In  scoring,  one  is  justified  in  dis- 
criminating more  against  the  extremely  fat  animal  than 
against  the  one  that  is  not  quite  fat  enough.  Buyers  and 
judges,  however,  oftentimes  give  more  credit  to  mere  con- 
dition than  they  should,  especially  in  show-ring  competi- 
tion. This  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  judges  passing  on 
fat  Berkshires  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition, 
sometimes  give  the  highest  awards  to  very  fat  animals, 


494 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


whereas  barrows  of  this  breed,  to  be  in  prime  condition, 
should  not  carry  as  much  flesh  and  thickness  as  most  Ameri- 
can breeds  of  the  lard  type. 

The  head  of  the  lard  hog  varies  considerably  in  charac- 
ter, but  breed  differences  in  this  discussion  are  unimportant. 
There  are  certain  features  that  are  regarded  with  favor 
by  all  buyers.  The  head  should  be  fairly  short.  Its  length 
is  largely  dependent  on  the  length  of  snout.  Too  long  a 
snout  is  open  to  criticism  as  indicating  waste  in  killing, 
consequently  a  short  snout,  that  is  not  rough  and  coarse 
is  preferred.  The  face  should  be  wide  in  front,  with  ample 
space  between  the  eyes.  "Width  of  face  is  correlated  with 


JTig.  271. — "The  face  should  be  wide  in  front,  with  ample  space  between  the 
eyes.    Width  of  face  is  correlated  with  width  of  body." 


JUDGING  THE   LARD  TYPE  OF   SWINE  495 

width  of  body.  Creases  on  the  side  of  the  face  sometimes 
occur,  but  these  are  objectionable.  Special  treatment  of  the 
head  is  frequently  required  after  killing,  in  order  to  remove 
the  hairs  from  the  creases  of  the  face.  The  cheeks  should 
be  full  and  smooth.  In  scoring  the  head,  discriminate 
especially  against  seams  and  roughness.  The  eyes  of  the 
hog  should  be  not  only  wide  apart,  but  easily  seen,  having 
clear  whites.  Such  eyes  indicate  a  quiet  temperament. 
Frequently  the  eyes  are  almost  hidden,  due  to  excessive  fat 
about  this  part  of  the  head.  Eyes  in  short,  dish-faced  heads 
are  less  easily  seen  than  in  long  heads.  The  eye  of  the  hog 
is  naturally  small,  but  his  vision  is  far  better  than  some 
might  suppose,  if  he  has  a  fair  chance  at  all  for  an  outlook. 
Partial  or  complete  blindness  is  not  rare  among  the  im- 
proved breeds,  and  this  defect  should  result  in  disqualifica- 
tion by  the  judge.  The  ears  assume  an  erect  position  in  some 
cases,  irrespective  of  breeds,  while  with  others  they  may 
droop  over  close  to  the  face.  This  is  not  important  unless 
one  is  considering  breed  character.  It  is  important,  how- 
ever, that  the  ear  be  of  good  texture,  covered  with  fine 
hair,  and  neatly  attached  to  the  head.  The  heavy,  coarse 
ear,  large  at  the  base,  is  indicative  of  general  coarseness. 
Some  authorities,  in  describing  the  ideal  ear,  specify  that 
it  should  be  small,  but  the  large  ear  need  not  necessarily 
be  coarse.  The  ear  may  be  large  and  thin,  and  quite  lacking 
in  coarseness,  as  occurs  with  a  number  of  European  breeds. 
If  large  and  thick,  and  heavy  at  its  attachment,  the  ear  is 
quite  sure  to  be  coarse  and  unshapely.  The  jowl  is  the 
thick,  fleshy  part  at  the  base  of  the  lower  jaw  and  neck. 
This  part  usually  carries  considerable  roundness  and  full- 
ness, and  indicates  condition  of  fleshing.  The  fatter  the 
hog,  the  more  highly  developed  the  jowl,  which  in  its  best 
form  should  be  round,  smooth  and  firm,  and  full  to  the 
space  between  the  shoulder  points.  One  objectionable  fea- 
ture is  often  found  at  the  jowl — the  occurrence  of  creases. 
In  judging,  emphasize  smoothness  more  than  fatness.  Flab- 


496 


JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 


biness  is  also  undesirable,  a  condition  to  be  found  in  over- 
fat  hogs,  when  the  jowl  will  shake  like  jelly,  and  show  much 
softness.  As  one  feels  of  this  part  with  the  hand,  it  should 
be  reasonably  firm  and  smooth  to  the  touch.  The  neck  of 
the  lard  hog  is  naturally  short,  broad  and  deep.  There  is 
little  likelihood  of  its  being  too  short,  but  occasionally  there 
is  too  much  length.  The  neck  naturally  rises  sharply  from 
back  of  the  ears,  for  a  short  distance,  after  which  it  more 

gradually  rises  to 
the  point  where  it 
merges  into  the 
body.  The  upper 
part  of  the  neck, 
toward  the  head, 
tends  to  be  narrow 
and  somewhat  bev- 
elled on  the  sides, 
rather  than  wide 
and  well  rounded 
off,  as  occurs  gen- 
erally farther  back. 
On  the  under  side 
of  the  neck  consid- 
erable fullness  is 
likely  to  occur  with 
the  fat  animal, 
and  often  the 

throat  drops  down  a  pendant,  keel-shaped  part,  which  ex- 
tends back  between  the  legs  and  quite  near  the  ground.  The 
neck  should  blend  smoothly  with  the  body  at  the  neck-vein 
or  shoulder  point.  In  judging  the  neck,  special  emphasis 
should  be  placed  on  a  short  conformation,  as  associated 
with  two  things,  viz.,  strength  of  constitution,  and  a  smaller 
percentage  of  low-priced  meat. 

The  f  orequarters,  consisting  of  shoulders,  breast  and  legs 
are  credited  with  12  points.  In  the  shoulder  we  find  one 
of  the  more  important  parts  used  as  cured  meat.  If  the 


Fig.   272. — "The   neck   naturally   rises   sharply 
from  back  of  the  ears  a  short  distance." 


JUDGING  THE   LARD   TYPE  OF   SWINE 


497 


Fig.  273. — "The  shoulders  themselves  should 
he  well  laid  in,  and  besides  the  covering  on  the 
sides,  should  he  smooth  and  well  filled  out  on 
lop." 


shoulder  -vein  is 
well  filled  out,  it 
carries  smoothly 
and  deeply  over  the 
blade,  resulting  in 
a  wide, thick,  meaty 
shoulder,  with  no 
hard  prominence  at 
the  point.  Rough- 
ness and  coarse- 
ness is  not  infre- 
quent here.  Creases 
and  hardness  of 
shoulder  covering 
are  sometimes 
found  in  fat  stags 
and  sows,  and  some 
barrows.  The  shoulders  themselves  should  be  well  laid  in,  and 
besides  the  covering  on  the  sides,  should  be  smooth  and  well 
filled  out  on  top.  A  wide,  level,  thick  covering  over  the  ends  of 
the  blades  is  associated  with  the  thick-fieshed  type.  The 
breast  occupies  the  space  just  at  and  in  front  of  the  fore- 
legs, and  blends 
into  the  lower  neck 
and  shoulder. 
Width  and  fullness 
should  be  features 
of  the  breast,  with 
the  breast-bone  or 
brisket  carried  well 
forward,  showing 
evidence  of  consti- 
tutional vigor.  The 
front  legs  should 
be  reasonablyshort, 

c  t  T»  n  n  o-     ami       as  Fig.  274. — "Modern    requirements   demand   a 

pastern  that  is  rather  short  and  earned  strongly 

viewed   from   in     upright." 


498  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

front  or  one  side,  straight  and  well  set.  A  nat- 
ural tendency  is  for  the  legs  to  curve  in  at  the 
knees,  and  sometimes  the  knee  joint  is  markedly  curved. 
As  viewed  from  in  front,  a  slight  curve  of  joint  may  be 
expected,  but  only  as  consistent  with  natural  joint  develop- 
ment, not  enough,  however,  to  justify  the  term  "buck 
kneed. "  A  narrow  placing  of  the  legs  naturally  indicates 
lack  of  heart  capacity  and  vitality,  and  when  the  knee 
joints  approach  too  closely  to  each  other,  a  narrow  chest 
formation  is  sure  to  occur.  The  pasterns  occupy  the  space 
between  toes  and  ankle  joints.  Much  has  been  said  by 
swine  men  regarding  the  pasterns.  Modern  requirements 
demand  a  pastern  that  is  rather  short  and  carried  strongly 
upright,  with  the  hog  well  supported  on  the  toes.  It  is 
assumed  that  modern  methods  of  feeding  produce  hogs  that 
are  often  unable  to  support  their  weight  on  upright  toes 
and  pasterns,  especially  if  they  have  been  fattened  and 
pushed  for  early  maturity.  The  reason  so  many  hogs  have 
badly  sloping  or  broken  down  pasterns,  with  the  dew  claws 
touching  the  ground,  is  said  to  be  because  of  this  excessive 
weight.  However,  the  author  questions  the  soundness  of  this 
argument.  It  has  been  his  observation,  both  on  wild  boars  in 
captivity,  and  with  the  bacon  type  of  hogs,  that  weak  pas- 
terns are  as  much  in  evidence  with  these  as  with  hogs  of  the 
lard  type,  which  carry  much  heavier  weight.  The  upright, 
strong  pastern  is  probably  more  a  feature  of  the  improved 
swine  than  of  the  old,  wild  or  native  stock.  In  early  days, 
before  the  railways,  when  hogs  were  driven  to  market, 
strong  legs  and  pasterns  were  most  essential  if  an  animal 
was  to  be  a  good  traveller.  The  necessity  of  upright  pas- 
terns probably  is  not  so  great  to-day,  nevertheless,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  they  add  to  the  strength  of  footing,  and 
carry  bodily  weight  more  easily  than  does  the  sloping  so- 
called  weak  pastern.  The  toes  should  not  spread  too  wide 
apart  and,  as  viewed  from  in  front,  they  should  point 
squarely  ahead.  A  common  weakness  of  front  toe  position 
is  "toeing  in"  or  pigeon  toe.  From  a  side  view  the  toes 


JUDGING  THE  LARD  TYPE  OF  SWINE 


499 


should  liave  quite  an  erect  position.  However,  animals  that 
are  old  or  heavy  frequently  break  down  at  the  pasterns  and 
slope  considerably  both  at  this  point  and  the  toes. 

The  body  of  the  hog  is  given  32  points — more  than  to 
any  other  one  section  in  the  scale  of  points.  This  is  because 
six  parts  are  included  here,  two  of  which,  the  back  and 
loin,  are  most  important  from  a  meat-producing  point  of 
view.  The  chest,  which  occupies  the  space  just  back  of  the 
shoulders,  gives 
evidence  of  heart 
and  lung  capacity, 
hence  a  demand 
here  for  width  and 
depth,  and  a  dis- 
tinctly large  girth. 
Special  emphasis 
should  be  given  to 
fullness  at  the  front 
flanks,  and  just 
back  of  the  shoul- 
der. If  the  front 
legs  are  short  and 
carried  wide  apart, 
and  the  shoulders 
are  well  laid  in,  as 
a  rule  the  chest 

will  show  a  wide  girth,  exhibiting  plenty  of  con- 
stitution. Certain  features  are  associated  with  desira- 
ble chest  conformation,  viz. :  the  low-set  floor,  and  a 
wide  placement  of  the  legs.  The  chest  girth  of 
the  hog  is  relatively  large,  and  a  measurement  of  38 
inches  at  9  months  of  age  is  quite  common.  Matured  fat 
hogs  may  girth  70  inches  or  more.  The  back  of  the  hog 
naturally  rises  in  a  slight  arch,  as  reference  to  the  skeleton 
clearly  shows.  Some  breeds  exhibit  considerable  natural 
arch,  and  others  but  little.  It  is  very  desirable  to  secure 
plenty  of  length,  with  slight  arch,  and  considerable  spring 


Fig.  275. — "The  hack  of  the  hog  naturally  rises 
in  a  slight  arch." 


500 


JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 


of  rib  or  width  of  back.  Young  hogs  naturally  carry  the 
back  strong  and  with  a  reasonable  amount  of  arch,  but  with 
age  the  tendency  is  for  the  back  to  become  more  level  and 
even  to  sag.  In.  scoring,  much  emphasis  should  be  placed  on 
the  back  being  strongly  supported  in  the  case  of  young 
animals.  More  allowance  may  be  made  for  mature  and 

especially  old  ani- 
mals. As  one  looks 
down  on  the  back 
from  above,  the 
ribs  should  show  a 
strong  arch,  with 
the  outer  back  lines 
parallel  to  each 
other.  The  fat  hog, 
in  good  condition, 
will  show  a  thick, 
even,  firm  covering 
of  flesh  over  the 
entire  back.  The 
character  of  this 
covering  may  be 
determined,  not 
only  by  the  eye, 
but  by  the  touch  of 
the  finger  tips  at  various  points  on  the  back.  The  loin 
is  essentially  a  part  of  the  back,  and  so  should  have  all  of 
its  width  and  strength.  In  the  loin,  where  the  muscles  are 
least  used,  are  to  be  found  the  tenderest  and  best  cuts  of 
meat,  so  a  smooth,  thick  fleshing  is  always  desired  here. 
Further,  as  the  kidneys  lie  below  the  loin,  if  this  part  of 
the  body  is  strongly  developed,  with  no  depression  in  front 
of  the  hips,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  kidneys  are  well  pro- 
tected and  will  render  the  efficient  service  desired.  Emphasis 
should  be  placed  on  the  loin  being  quite  level  with  the  back, 
where  it  merges  with  the  hips,  for  a  falling  away  or  slack- 
ness here  is  a  too  common  fault.  "When  hogs  are  over- 


Fig.  276. — "Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the 
loin  being  quite  level  with  the  back,  where'  it 
merges  with  the  hips." 


JUDGING  THE  LARD  TYPE  OF  SWINE 


501 


forced  or  are  too  fat,  the  fat  will  show  as  much  in  the 
back  and  loin  as  elsewhere. 

The  sides  of  the  hog  should  be  of  good  depth,  dropping 
down  from  a  well  arched  rib.  The  form  of  the  side  de- 
pends somewhat  on  the  breed  or  breed  influence,  for  in  some 
cases  the  sides  are  rather  curved  from  the  ribs  down,  while 
with  others  they  are  flat  and  drop  quite  vertically  toward 
the  belly  line.  In 
general  it  is  desira- 
ble to  have  the 
sides  of  fair  length, 
carried  out  in  a 
straight  line  from 
shoulder  to  hip,  so 
that  a  straight  edge 
will  touch  all  along 
or  nearly  so. 
Smoothness  and 
freedom  from 
creases  applies  here 
as  elsewhere,  and 
the  smoother  the 
side  the  more  uni- 
form the  quality  of 

the  fleshing.  Creases  often  extend  in  vertical  lines 
along  the  sides,  especially  toward  the  shoulder  and  give 
a  rough  appearance  as  well  as  indicating  poor  fatten- 
ing character.  A  side  long  and  deep,  perfectly  smooth, 
showing  a  clean,  healthy  skin,  covered  not  too  thickly  with 
straight  hair  of  fine  quality,  should  score  very  high.  The 
belly  proper  may  be  regarded  as  the  part  of  the  body  lying 
between  two  lines  extending  from  the  lower  part  of  each 
front  flank  to  hind  flank.  As  one  stands  off  and  looks  at 
the  belly,  the  lower  edge  carries  quite  level,  with  clean- 
cut  lines,  indicating  little  waste  in  killing.  A  paunchy, 
rounded  belly  is  much  objected  to  by  discriminating  buyers, 
as  bearing  evidence  of  too  much  intestines  and  consequent 


Fig.  277. — "It  is  desirable  to  have  the  sides 
of  fair  length,  carried  out  in  a  straight  line 
from  shoulder  to  hip,  so  that  a  straight  edge. 
will  touch  all  along,  or  nearly  so." 


502 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


loss  in  dressed  weight.  Buyers  note  sharply  this  feature. 
One  must  not  confound  this  characteristic  in  the  fat  hog, 
with  the  paunchy  look  of  breeding  females,  or  of  young 
pigs  with  full  bellies.  In  the  latter  this  condition  will 
change,  while  the  paunchy  belly  on  the  fat  hog,  as  a  rule, 
continues  its  undesirable  development.  Flanks  that  are  full 
and  carried  low  down  are  associated  not  only  with  depth  of 
body,  but  thickness  as  well.  Fullness  of  flank,  especially  in 
front,  accompanies  strong  heart  girth  and  vigorous  consti- 
tution. A  full  hind  flank,  showing  a  tendency  to  roll  some- 
what when  the  animal  is  in  motion,  is  evidence  of  easy 
fattening  quality.  "When  the  flanks  on  the  same  side  are 
low  and  full,  the  body  line  below  is  quite  level  and  likely 
to  be  parallel  with  the  upper  line  of  body.  The  wise  judge 
will  not  give  a  superficial  examination  to  the  flanks. 

The  hindquarters  of  the  lard  type  of  hog,  in  the  estima- 
tion of  most  judges,  represent  the  most  valuable  part  from 
a  commercial  point  of  view.  This  is  because  we  have  here 
the  heaviest  weighing  part,  commanding  the  highest  .price 
per  pound.  The  rump  is  a  continuation  of  the  back  line, 
from  the  outside  of  the  hips  to  the  end  of  the  body.  As 
one  looks  down  on  the  rump  from  behind,  it  should  show 

the  same  width 
throughout,  exhib- 
iting thickness  and 
weight.  As  viewed 
from  one  side,  the 
ideal  rump  will  be 
long  and  level,  that 
is,  the  top  line  will 
be  continued  as 
nearly  level  as  pos- 
sible, quite  close  to 
the  setting  on  of 
the  tail.  However. 
it  is  quite  natural 
for  the  rump  of  the 


Fig.  278. — "It  is  quite  natural  for  the  rump  of 
the  hog  to  slope  considerably." 


JUDGING   THE   LARD   TYPE  OF   SWINE 


503 


Fij,'.  i>70. — "The  well-formed  ham  from  this 
side  view  will  ;ilso  present  much  fullness  be- 
hind." 


hog  to  slope  con- 
siderably, so  that 
even  in  the  highest 
scoring  individuals 
one  will  not  find 
this  part  so  truly 
level  as  with  high- 
class  cattle  or 
sheep.  Great  length 
and  thickness  are 
the  two  most  im- 
portant features, 
for  thus  weight  is 
secured.  The  set- 
ting on  of  the  tail 
is  often  low,  and 
when  this  is  the 
case  it  will  be  noted 

that  the  rump  is  inclined  to  be  steep,  and  the  1m m 
below  is  short.  All.  of  the  arguments  are  in  behalf 
of  a  long,  full,  level  rump,  with  tail  attached  reasonably 
high,  because  this  conformation  goes  with  heavy,  meaty 
development  below.  The  hams  viewed  from  the  side  should 
be  wide  across  at  the  top,  because  the  rump  forms  the  1op 
of  the  ham.  They  should  also  be  wide  from  stifle  to  end 
of  body,  and  of  great  comparative  length,  from  either  hip 
or  stifle  to  the  point  of  the  hocks.  This  brings  out  the  im- 
portance of  the  long  rump.  The  well-formed  ham,  from 
this  side  view  will  also  present  much  fullness  behind,  the 
outline  dropping  rather  vertically  for  some  distance,  and 
then  curving  in  sharply  to  form  the  narrow  part  of  the  leg, 
not  far  above  the  hock.  From  this  standpoint  the  ideal  ham 
will  be  smooth,  absolutely  free  of  wrinkles  and  folds  of  skin, 
but  rounded  out  sufficiently  to  indicate  thickness  and 
weight.  The  hock  itself  will  be  somewhat  thick,  yet  trim 
and  neat.  Viewed  from  behind,  the  hams  should  appear 
thick  and  meaty,  with  the  outer  parts  of  the  thighs  widely 


504 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


separated.  Where  the  thighs  contract  to  form  the  lower 
thigh  and  hock,  the  curves  between  the  legs  at  the  twist 
should  approach  a  right  angle  as  much  as  possible,  with  the 
lower  thighs  widely  separated  at  points  of  hocks.  It  is  es- 
sential that,  from  a  rear  view,  the  hams  be  both  thick  and 
deep.  The  judge  will  note  that  some  thick  hams  lack  depth. 

Others  show  more 
thickness  through 
from  side  to  side, 
and  yet  possess  con- 
siderable depth 
from  tail  setting  to 
the  deepest  point 
between  the  two 
thighs.  The  hind 
legs  should  stand 
straight  and  be 
well  supported  on 
the  toes.  Viewed 
from  one  side,  the 
leg  from  hock  to 
ankle  should  come 
down  in  a  vertical 
line.  It  is  a  com- 
mon tendency  for 

the  hog  to  shove  the  hind  legs  beneath  the  body  in  quite  a 
slanting  position,  with  the  dew  claws  almost,  if  not  quite 
touching  the  ground,  the  weight  of  body  being  supported  on 
the  entire  length  of  toes,  rather  than  on  their  tips.  This  is  a 
very  undesirable  position,  and  is  usually  associated  with 
lack  of  bone  and  weak  leg  formation.  From  the  hock  down, 
the  bone  should  seem  reasonably  large  and  strong,  in  order 
to  bear  the  great  weight  of  the  fat  hog.  A  rear  view  shows 
the  hocks  widely  separated,  and  the  shank  bones  well  apart 
and  parallel  and  strongly  supported  on  the  pasterns  and 
toes,  which  should  point  directly  ahead.  If  the  hocks  are 
too  close  together  then  the  legs  and  toes  point  outward, 


Fig.  280. — '"The  curves  between  the  legs  at 
the  twist  should  approach  a  right  angle  as  much 
as  possible." 


K  SWINE          r><)5 

a  conformation  associated  with  a  .narr<>\\-  thigh  ;md  ham. 
If  the  hocks  are  widely  separated,  and  the  legs  and  toes 
point  in — a  rather  unusual  position  behind — then  the  legs 
are  usually  bowed,  and  furnish  a  weak  support  to  the  body. 
The  butcher  is  not  interested  in  this  matter  of  position  of 
leg  and  bone,  if  the  ham  is  sufficiently  thick  and  deep,  but 
as  a  matter  of  inheritance,  the  strength  of  bone  and  proper 
carriage  of  leg  have  a  vital  bearing  on  the  character  of  the 


Fig.  281. — "It  is  a  common  tendency  for  the  hog  to  shove  the  hind  legs 
beneath  the  body  in  quite  a  slanting  position,  with  the  dew  claws  almost, 
if  not  quite,  touching  the  ground." 

ham  and  its  value.  The  pasterns  and  toes  or  the  hind  legs 
should  have  an  upright,  straight  carriage,  for  the  same 
reasons  given  in  the  discussion  of  these  parts  of  the  front 
legs. 

The  anima*!  being  carefully  examined,  and  comparison 
with  the  ideal  being  made  through  the  various  steps  of 
scoring,  the  total  score  is  to  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
card.  In  making  this  detailed  examination,  the  various 
features  of  importance  are  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
judge.  A  number  of  other  hogs  may  be  scored  to  advantage 


50fi  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

:n  the  same  manner,  or  two  may  be  scored  for  comparative 
jtudy.  In  lids  score  card  comparison  the  same  parts  of  each 
animal  should  be  systematically  compared,  step  by  step. 
Thus  one  may  note  how  many  points  Hog  A  scores  in 
weight,  and  how  Hog  B  measures  up  beside  A,  and  so  on, 
comparing  the  several  other  points  to  be  examined.  One 
person  may  quite  conveniently  score  twro  animals,  and  make 
an  interesting  comparative  study,  but  it  is  not  desirable  to 
oxtend  much  beyond  this. 


CHAPTER  XLIX. 

THE   COMPARATIVE   STUDY  OF   SWINE. 

IN  making  a  comparative  study  of  swine  without  the  use 
of  a  scale  of  points,  two  or  more  animals  may  be 
brought  forward.  In  general  class  work,  a  pen  of  four 
makes  a  convenient  number  for  study.  It  may  be  assumed 
that  these  are  suited  to  go  in  the  same  age  class,  and  have 
been  prepared  for  the  same  purpose,  so  that  their  condi- 
tions are  comparable.  This  puts  the  comparison  on  a  fair 
basis  as  to  age,  and  purpose  or  type.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  these  animals  are  destined  for  the  butcher,  the  judge 
in  his  work  must  keep  first  in  mind  the  general  considera- 
tions of  the  scale  of  points,  that  is,  weight,  form,  quality 
and  condition.  Therefore,  he  carefully  looks  over  the  hogs, 
first  moving  them  about  to  view  each  from  all  points 
whereby  comparison  may  be  drawn.  He,  naturally,  at  once 
compares  size  and,  other  things  being  equal,  the  larger 
animal  has  the  advantage.  Beauty  as  shown  in  symmetry 
of  form,  at  once  attracts  the  judge,  but  as  the  butcher  is 
looking  for  the  greatest  profit  in  the  carcass,  he  is  not  losing 
sight  of  quality  and  condition.  So,  keeping  in  mind  the 
need  of  good,  firm  flesh,  thickly  and  evenly  distributed 
over  the  frame,  the  judge  puts  a  premium  on  these  features, 
not  losing  sight  of  the  necessity  of  dressing  out  to  show 
as  little  waste  in  head,  legs  and  guts  as  possible.  These 
are  all  general  considerations,  and  must  be  weighed  up  in 
the  comparison.  Therefore,  in  order  to  bring  the  contrast 
to  a  finer  basis,  it  is  necessary  that  the  judge,  even  wilh 
animals  for  immediate  slaughter,  should  bring  into  com- 
parison certain  important  details  of  conformation,  These 
we  would  naturally  assume  to  be  the  back,  loin,  shoulders, 
sides  and  hams,  the  parts  most  desired  in  the  carcass.  So 

507 


508  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

the  judge,  with  the  aid  of  his  stick,  groups  his  animals  side 
by  side  in  order  that  he  may  look  down  on  the  backs  and 
compare  breadth  and  length,  and  note  wherein  one  surpasses 
another.  Standing  behind  the  animals  a  few  feet,  one  also 
gets  a  rump  and  ham  view,  as  well  as  back,  so  that  this 
position  gives  a  good  point  for  observation.  To  see  the 
sides  the  hogs  must  be  moved  so  that  an  unobstructed  view 
may  be  had,  whereby  the  sides  may  be  easily  studied.  An 
experienced  judge  usually  has  the  animals  well  scattered 
in  the  judging  space,  thus  enabling  him  to  study  and  corn- 


Fig.  282. — "The  judge,  with  the  aid  of  his  stick,  groups  his  animals 

side  by  side,  in  order  that  he  may  look  down  on  the  backs  and  compare 

breadth  and  length,  and  note  wherein  one  surpasses  another."  (Photo 
by  courtesy  Ohio  Agr.  Exp.  Station.) 

pare  at  his  leisure.  If  one  has  four  animals  very  closely 
matched  then  some  of  the  minor  characteristics,  such  as 
length  or  position  of  legs,  size  of  ear,  width  of  face,  etc., 
will  serve  as  a  basis  for  arriving  at  a  decision.  One  year 
the  Ohio  State  University  had  in  competition  at  the  Inter- 
national Live  Stock  Exposition,  a  pen  of  three  fat  hogs  that 
had  won  first  prize  in  class.  They  were  very  choice  and 
unusually  well-matched  individuals,  but  in  the  competi- 
tion for  championship  honors,  after  mature  deliberation, 
the  prize  went  elsewhere.  The  judge  later  explained,  and 
rightly,  that  one  pig  in  the  Ohio  pen  had  somewhat  crooked 
Mnd  legs,  which  he  persisted  in  keeping  well  under  his 


THE  COMPARATIVE!   STfDY  OF   SNVINK  f)0n 

body.  It  was  this  defect,  slight  as  it  WHS,  which  resulted 
in  the  defeat  of  an  otherwise  very  choice  pen.  This  de- 
cision illustrates,  that,  in  the  final  measurement,  of  tin- 
judge,  he  must  frequently  emphasize1  the  importance  of 
non-essentials,  in  arriving  at  a  decision. 

A  comparative  placing  card  for  swine  will  be  found 
serviceable  for  students,  and  may  be  arranged  after  the 
following  plan.  This  card  has  been  filled  out  for  illus- 
trative purposes.  Each  part  may  thus  be  discussed  and 
compared  in  detail,  and  differences  brought  out  that  might 
otherwise  be  quite  overlooked : 


L':|  3d  1th 

M:  u-< -Place  Place 

D  (!  B 

15  I  >  C 

C         1 '.        D 

A  l>          C 

I J          I )          ( ' 

B      :n       c 

B         D         C 
A         C        D 

B      r>      c 

ADC 
ADC 


The  reason  for  placing  the  hogs  in  a  ring  in  their  regu- 
lar order  of  merit,  student  or  judge  should  be  able  to  give. 
No  uniform  rule  is  to  be  applied  in  the  matter  of  giving 
reasons,  for  much  more  may  be  expected  in  some  cases  than 
in  others.  Close  competition  requires  more  explanation 
than  where  the  decision  of  the  judge  has  been  easy.  The 
reasons,  however,  should  deal  with  features  that  the  well- 
informed  would  at  once  recognize  as  of  first  importance. 

The  following  discussion  of  placing  a  ring  of  market  lard 
hogs,  was  prepared  by  a  man  who  gives  especial  attention 
to  the  judging  of  swine: 


Comparative  Placing  Card 
for  ,  Swine 
Size  

1st 
PI:  ic 
.  .      A 

Condition          
Quality 

.  .      A 
.  .     A 

Head                                  

.  .      I'. 

Neck   and    iovvl 

A 

Shoulders          
Back 

..     A 
.  .     A 

..     B 

A 

"Leers 

.  .     B 

Feet                                      .        ... 

.  .     B 

Placing 

A 

510  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

"I  placed  B  first,   C   second,   A   third  and  D  fourth. 

"B  is  placed  over  C  because  of  pronounced  superiority 
in  form  and  quality.  B  is  broader,  deeper  and  longer  than 
C ;  B  furthermore  has  a  more  neatly  laid  in  shoulder,  which 
joins  to  a  smoother,  longer  side.  In  rear  end  development 
B  is  superior  to  C,  having  a  broader  and  longer  rump, 
which  in  turn  gives  more  width  and  thickness  of  loin.  B's 
superior  quality  is  shown  by  a  more  even  distribution  and 
fineness  of  coat  covering,  by  a  harder,  denser  character  of 
bone,  and  by  more  evenness  and  smoothness  of  contour  gen- 
erally. In  view  of  these  points  of  excellence  which  B  shows 
over  C,  one  would  judge  the  former  as  dressing  more  meat 
of  superior  quality  when  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  butcher. 

1 ' C  is  placed  over  A  chiefly  because  of  superior  condition, 
there  being  little  difference,  in  form  and  quality.  C's  better 
condition  is  shown  by  greater  thickness  over  the  top,  sides 
and  hams.  Briefly  stated,  C  shows  more  finish  than  A  and 
therefore  would  be  more  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  butcher. 

' '  D  in  this  ring  is  an  outstanding,  inferior  hog,  and  there- 
fore is  placed  last.  He  lacks  the  width,  depth  and  thick- 
ness possessed  by  the  other  animals,  and  is  furthermore 
inferior  in  his  arch  of  back,  strength  of  loin,  and  smooth- 
ness of  body  generally. 

"Briefly  summarized,  B  is  superior  to  C  in  form  and 
quality,  C  is  superior  to  A  chiefly  in  condition,  and  A  is  in 
most  every  respect  superior  to  D." 

The  above  illustrates  a  common  method  of  expression  in 
giving  reasons  for  placings,  whether  oral  or  written.  Na- 
turally, persons  will  differ  in  the  degree  of  emphasis  they 
will  place  on  the  different  parts,  either  good  or  bad.  Fur- 
ther, the  same  person  will  necessarily  discuss  each  pen  as 
a  separate  affair,  emphasizing  more  in  one  case  than  an- 
other, as  impressed  by  the  personality  of  the  animals  judged. 
However,  one  thing  the  judge  should  always  keep  in  mind, 
and  that  is  to  discuss  his  placings  in  as  systematic  a  man- 
ner as  possible. 


CHAPTER  L. 

DESCRIPTIVE  NOTES  ON  THE  LARD  TYPE  BREEDS 
OF  SWINE. 

THE  lard  type  of  swine  being1  almost  universal  in  the 
United  States,  the  breeds  of  that  kind  are  common,  while 
those  of  the  bacon  type  are  comparatively  rare. 

The  Berkshire  breed  of  swine  originated  in  the  county  of 
Berks  in  south  England.  Its  prevailing  color  of  skin  and 
hair  is  black,  with  white  hair  on  the  face,  lower  parts  of 
legs,  and  tail.  These  six  white  points  need  not  necessarily 
all  be  in  evidence,  but  the  breed  has  been  developed  to  a 
degree  that  almost  insures  their  presence.  The  body  itself 


Fig.  283. — BERKSHIRE  BOAR.     "The  head  is  comparatively  short  and  more 
or  less  dished." 

511 


512 


JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 


•should  be  black,  but  white  marks  may  occur  elsewhere,  espe- 
cially on  ear,  throat  and  armpit,  without  disqualifying  for 
registration.  In  size,  the  Berkshire  ranks  well.  Young  pigs 
at  six  months  of  age  should  weigh  175  pounds,  and  300  at 
twelve  months.  In  ordinary  condition  mature  boars  should 
weigh  600  pounds  and  sows  500  pounds.  The  Berkshire  pos- 
sesses certain  quite  distinctive  breed  features.  The  head  is 
comparatively  short  and  more  or  less  dished,  in  some  cases 

the  nose  turning 
up  to  an  extreme 
degree,  not  ap- 
proved of  by  very 
thoughtful  breed- 
ers. The  ears  should 
be  erect  of  car- 
r  i  a  g  e,  especially 
with  young  ani- 
mals; on  old  hogs 
the  ears  tend  to 
lean  forward  more 
or  less,  due  to 
weakening  of  the  muscles  connecting  with  the  head.  The  back 
of  the  Berkshire  carries  but  little  arch  and  is  of  fair  length ; 
from  an  end  view  it  does  not  usually  show  as  much  width  as 
some  other  breeds.  The  rump  may  be  of  excellent  length,  but 
the  ham  tends  to  lack  somewhat  in  thickness.  The  bone  is  of 
fair  quality,  and  Berkshires  stand  as  well  on  the  feet  as 
do  most  breeds.  The  quality  of  the  flesh  is  of  the  highest 
grade,  and  in  general  fleshing,  the  Berkshire  shows  up 
smooth  and  to  advantage.  This  is  a  breed  that  does  not 
naturally  carry  the  thickness  of  the  Poland-China,  Chester 
"White  or  Duroc-Jersey,  being  the  narrowest  of  the  lard 
type  breeds.  British  breeders  favor  a  leaner-fleshed  pig 
than  do  Americans.  Our  judges  should  not  seek  the  same 
width  and  roundness  of  form  with  the  Berkshire  as  have 
the  other  breeds  mentioned. 


Fig.  284. — A  Berkshire  barrow,  champion  at  the 
International  Live  Stock  Exposition. 


LARD  TYPK    HRKKDS   OF   SWTXR  513 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  BERKSHIRE  SWINE. 

(Adopted  by  the   American   Berkshire   Swine    Association.) 

Points 

Color — Black,  white  feet,   face  and  tip  of  tail,  but  skin  and  hair  occasion- 
ally showing  tinge  of  bronze  or  copper  color.     An  occasional  splash  of 
white  not  objectionable;  lack  of  either  of  white  points  admissible      ..         3 
Face  and  snout — Face  well  dished  and  broad  between  the  eyes;  snout  short 

and  broad 7 

Eyes — Prominent,  clean,   clear,  large,   dark  hazel  or  gray 2 

Ears — Medium  size,  setting  well  apart,  carried  fairly  erect,  inclining  for- 
ward, especially  with  age 3 

Jowl — Full,  firm,  not  flabby  or  hanging  too  low,  running  back  well  to  neck  3 
Neck — Full,  short,  slightly  arched,  broad  on  top,  well  connected  with 

shoulder 3 

Hair — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  lying  close  to  and  covering  body  well;   free 

from  bristles 3 

Skin — Smooth  and  mellow 3 

Chest — Deep,  full  and  wide,  with  good  heart  girth 6 

Shoulder — Smooth  and  even  on  top  and  in  line  with  side G 

Side — Deep,  smooth,  well  let  down,  straight  side  and  bottom  lines  .  .  .  .  6 
Back — Broad,  full,  strong,  level  or  slightly  arched;  ribs  well  sprung  .  .  10 
Flank — Extending  well  back  and  low  down  on  leg_  making  nearly  a 

straight  line  with  lower  part  of  side "» 

Loin — Full,  wide  and  well  covered  with  flesh        6 

Ham — Deep,  wide,  thick  and  firm,  extending  well  up  on  back  and  holding 

thickness  well  down  to  hock 10 

Tall— Well  up  on  line  with  back,  neither  too  fine,  short  or  tapering  .  .  .  .  2 
Legs  and  feet — Straight  and  strong,  set  wide  apart,  short  in  pastern,  with 

hoofs  nearly  erect,  capable  of  carrying  great  weight K) 

Size — Size  all  that  is  possible  without  loss  of  quality  or  symmetry,  with 
good  length.  Weight  in  good  condition,  boars  at  12  months  350  to 
450  pounds;  at  24  months,  500  to  700  pounds;  sows  at  12  months 

350  to  400  pounds;   at  24  months  500  to  700  pounds 6 

Appearance  and  character — Vigorous,  attractive,  of  good  disposition,  firm 

and  easv  of  movement 6 


100 


The  Poland-China  breed  of  swine  is  of  American  origin, 
having  its  early  development  in  southwest  Ohio.  This  is 
a  oreed  that  has  gone  through  some  changes  in  color  mark- 
ings. Formerly,  the  body  was  black,  with  white  spots  of 
variable  size  on  the  black  background.  In  recent  years 
the  Poland-China  has  been  bred  to  color  markings  quite 
like  the  Berkshire,  the  face  and  legs  especially  being  more 
or  less  white.  "White  marks  may  occur  elsewhere,  however. 
In  fact  there  is  now  some  attention  being  paid  to  what  is 
termed  the  Spotted  Poland  hog,  which  may  be  registered 
in  one  of  the  recognized  Poland-China  record  books  as  well 
as  in  the  National  Spotted  Poland  Record  Association.  The 


514 


JUDGING.  FARM    ANIMALS 


body  color  of  the  Poland-China  is  strictly  a  deep  black,  not 
having  any  suggestion  of  bronze  or  reddish  tint^  as  in  case 
of  the  Berkshire.  The  size  of  the  Poland-China  ranges 
from  medium  to  large.  Pigs  at  six  months  should  weigh 
about  175  pounds,  and  at  12  months  the  standard  insists 
that  pigs  of  either  sex  must  weigh  at  least  300  pounds.  At 
full  maturity,  in  fair  condition,  boars  should  weigh  600 
pounds  or  more,  and  sows  not  less  than  450  pounds.  In 


Fig.  285. — Poland-China  sow,  "Lucille,"  grand  champion  Louisiana  Purchase 
Exposition,  1904.      (Photo  by  courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 

ordinary  breeding  condition  they  will  be  quite  likely  to 
waigh  less  than  this.  The  head  of  the  Poland-China  is 
straight  of  face.  The  ears  should  be  fine  and  break  over  at 
the  upper  third  into  a  neat  droop.  With  age,  the  ears 
frequently  droop  quite  low  over  the  face.  The  back  should 
show  quite  a  pronounced  arch,  as  viewed  from  one  side, 
while  an  end  view  exhibits  a  strong  spring  of  ribs,  with  a 
tendency  for  the  body  to  be  much  narrower  below  than 
above.  The  hindquarters  of  fair  specimens  of  this  breed 


LARD  TYPE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE         515 

have  wide,  long  rumps  ;m<l  deep,  thick  thighs.  The  rumps, 
however,  are  often  somewhat  droopy.  Thickness  of  ham  is 
a  characteristic  of  this  breed.  The  bone  is  often  light  for 
the  weight  carried,  and  the  pasterns  may  be  quite  sloping. 
Breeders  of  Poland- Chinas  have  almost  divided  themselves 
into  two  groups,  one  favoring  a  medium-sized,  quick  ma- 
turing pig ;  the  other,  a  larger,  heavier  boned,  coarser  hog. 
Unquestionably,  this  breed  has  lost  much  ground  among 
farmers  in  the  middle  west,  due  to  over-refinement  and 
small  litters.  These  objections,  advocates  of  the  so-called 
"big  type"  are  endeavoring  to  overcome.  If  a  combination 
of  scale  and  quality  are  present,  other  things  being  equal, 
the  large  type  will  usually  receive  the  approval  of  the 
judge.  Quality  must  be  emphasized. 

SCALE   OF   POINTS  FOR  POLAND-CHINA   SWINE. 

(Adopted  by   the   National    Poland-China   Record   Association.) 

Points 

Head  and  face — Should  be  broad,  even  and  smooth  between  and  above 
the  eyes;  slightly  dished,  tapering  evenly  and  gradually  to  near  the 
end  of  the  nose.  Broad  lower  jaw;  head  inclined  to  shortness,  but 
not  enough  to  give  appearance  of  stubby  nose.  In  the  males  a  nias- 

culine   appearance   and  expression '•'• 

Objections:  Head  long,  narrow  between  the  eyes;  nose  -uncrcn  and 
coarse;  too  large  at  the  muzzle  or  the,  head  tuo  short:  not  full  or 
high  above  the,  eyes;  or  too  much  wrinkled  around  or  ahore  the 
eyes. 

Eyes — Full,    clear,    prominent,    expressive      

Objections:   Dutt  expression,  deep  set  or  obscure.     Sight  impaired  by 

wrinkles,  fat  or  other  cause. 

Ears — Ears  attached  to  the  head  by  a  short,  firm  knuckle,  giving  free 
and  easy  action.  Standing  up  slightly  at  the  base  to  within  .two- 
thirds  of  the  tip,  where  a  gentle  break  or  drop  should  occur;  in 
.size  neither  too  large  nor  too  small,  but  even,  fine,  thin,  leaf  shape, 

.slightly  inclined  outward 

Objections:  Large,  floppy,  straight,  upright  or  coarse;  knuckle  long, 
letting  the  ear  drop  too  close  to  the  head  and  face,  hindering  free. 
use  of  the  ears. 

Neck — Short,    wide,    even,    smooth,    -wall    arched,    rounding    and    full    fro::i 
poll  to  shoulder,  with  due  regard  to  the  characteristics  of  the  sex 
Objections:  Long,  narrow,  thin  and  drooping  from  the  shoulder  to  tin- 
poll,  with  uneven  ness  canned  by  wrinkles  or  creases. 

Jowl — Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth  and  firm,  carrying  fullness  back  near  to 
point  of  shoulders,  and  below  line  of  lower  jaw  so  that  lower  line 

will  be  as  low  as  breast  bone  when  head  is  carried  up  level 

Objections:    Light,    flabby,    thin,    and     n<<-d!/e-*h<i]K-<l,    dee/ili/    •irrinkl.d. 
not  drooping  below  line   of  lower  jaw  and  not  carrying 
back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 


516  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Points 

Shoulder — Broad  and  oval  at  top,  showing  evenness  with  the  back  and 
neck,  with  good  width  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  and  even  smooth- 
ness extending  well  forward  6 

Objections:  Narrow  at  top  or  bottom,  not  as  deep  as  the  bod)/,  uneven 
width,  shields  on  pigs  under  eight  months  of  age,  or  showing  too 
much  shield  at  any  age. 

Chest — Large,  wide,  deep  and  full;  even  underline  to  the  shoulder  and 
sides,  with  no  creases,  giving  plenty  of  room  for  the  heart  and  other 
organs,  making  a  large  girth  indicating  much  vitality.  Brisket 
smooth,  even  and  broad;  wide  between  the  legs  and  extending  well 

forward,  showing  in  front 12 

Objections:  Pinched  appearance  at  the  top  or  bottom,  or  tucked  in 
back  of  the  forelegs;  showing  too  narrow  between  the  legs;  not 
depth  enough  back  of  the  shoulder.  Brisket  uneven,  narrow,  not 
prominent. 

Back  and  loin — Broad,   straight  or  slightly  arched,   carrying  same  width 
from    shoulder    to    ham;    surface    even,    smooth,    free    from    lumps, 
creases  or  projections;   not   too  long,   but  broad   on  top,    indicating 
well  sprung  ribs ;  should  not  be  higher  at  hip  than  at  shoulder,  and 
should  fill  out  at  junction  with  side,  so  that  a  straight  edge  placed 
along  at  top  of  side  will  touch  all  the  way   from  point  of  shoulder 
to  point  of  ham.      Should  be  shorter  than  lower  belly  line      .  .       .  .      14 
Objections:  Narrow,  creased  back  of  shoulders,  swayed  or  hollow,  drop- 
ping below  a  straight  line;  humped  or  ivrinkled;  too  long  or  sun- 
fish  shaped;  loin  high,  narrow,  depressed  or  humped  up;  surface 
lumpy,  creased,  ridgy  or  uneven;  width  at  side  not  as  much  as 
shoulder  and  ham. 

Sides  and  ribs — Sides  full,  firm  and  deep,  free  from  wrinkles ;  carrying 
size  down  to  belly;  even  from  ham  to  shoulder;  ribs  of  good  length, 

well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom 8 

Objections:  Flat,  thin,  flabby,  pinched,  not  as  full  at  bottom  as  at  top; 
drawn  in-  at  shoulder  so  as  to  produce  a  crease,  or  pinched  and 
tucked  tip  and  in  as  it  approaches  the  ham;  uneven  surface;  ribs 
flat  or  too  short. 

Belly  and  flank — Belly  broad,  straight  and  full,  indicating  capacity  and 
room,  being  about  the  same  or  on  a  level  at  the  flank  with  the  under- 
line of  the  chest;  underline  straight,  or  nearly  so,  and  free  from 

fleshy  appearance 4 

Objections:  Belly  uneven  and  flabby,  or  apparent  looseness  in  the  make- 
up. Pinched  up  in  the  flank  or  flanked  too  high. 

Hams  and  rump — Hams  broad,   full,   deep   and  long  from  rump  to  hock. 
Fully  developed  above  and  below,  being  wide  at  the  point  of  the  hip, 
carrying  width  well  down  to  the  lower  part  of  the  hams.      Fleshy, 
plump,    rounding    fullness    perceptible    everywhere.      Rump    rounding 
and  gradually  sloping  from  the  loin  to  the  root  of  the  tail.     Broad 
and  well  developed  all  along  from  loin   and  gradually  rounding  to 
buttock ;  lower  front  part  of  ham  should  be  full,  and  stifle  well  cov- 
ered with  flesh.     Even  width  of  ham  and  rump  with  the  back,  loin 
and  body.     Even  a  greater  width  as  to  females  not  objectionable      .  .      10 
Objections:  Ham  short,  narrow,  too  round  or  slim,  not  filled  out  above 
or  below,  or  unshapely  for  deep  meat;  not  as  wide  as  the  body; 
back  or  loin  too  tapering,  or  small;  rump  narrow  or  pointed,  not 
plump  or  well  filled  or  too  steep  from  loin  to  tail. 

Legs  and  feet — Legs  medium  length,  straight,  heavy  bone,  set  well  apart 
and  squarely  under  body,  tapering,  well  muscled  and  wide  above  knee 
and  hock;  below  hock  and  knee  round  and  tapering,  capable  of  sus- 
taining weight  of  animal  in  full  flesh  without  breaking  down;  bone 


LARD  TYPE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  517 

Points 
firm  and  of  fine  texture;  pasterns  short  and  nearly  upright.     Feet 

firm,  short,  tough  and  free  from  defects 10 

Objections:  Legs  long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked;  muscles  small  above  hock 
and  knee;  as  large  at  foot  as  above  knee;  pasterns  long,  slim, 
crooked  or  weak;  the  hocks  turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line;  legs 
too  close  together;  hoofs  long,  slim  and  weak;  toes  spreading  out 
or  crooked  or  unable  to  bear  up  weight  of  animal  without  breaking 
down. 

Tail — Tail  of  medium  length  and  size,  smooth  and  tapering  well  and  car- 
ried in  a  curve 1 

Objections:    Coarse   and  long   without   a   curl;    or  short,   crooked  or 

stubby;  or  too  small,  fine,  uneven,  not  tapering. 
Coat — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  lying  close  to  and  covering  the  body  well; 

not  clipped  ;  evenly  distributed  over  the  body .  .       .  .         3 

Objections:  Bristles,  hair  coarse,  harsh,  thin,  wavy  or  curly;  swirls; 
standing  up;  ends  of  hair  split  and  brown,  not  evenly  distributed 
over  att  of  the  body,  except  the  belly.  Clipped  coats  should  be  cut 
1.5  points. 

Color — Black  with  six  (6)  white  points;  tip  of  tail,  four  white  feet 
and  white  in  face,  or  on  the  nose  or  on  the  point  of  the  lower  jaw. 
All  to  be  perceptible  without  close  examination.  Splashes  of  white 
on  the  jaw,  legs  or  flank  or  a  few  white  spots  on  the  body  not  objec- 
tionable    2 

Objections:  Solid  black,  white  mixed  or  sandy  spots.  Speckled  with 
white  hairs  over  the  body;  mottled  face  or  white  and  black;  hair 
mixed,  making  a  grizzly  appearance. 

Size — Large   for   age.      Condition,   vigor   and  vitality   to   be    considered. 
There    should    be    a   difference    between    breeding    animals    and    those 
kept   or  fitted    for  the    show    of   at    least    25   per   cent   in   size.      In 
show   condition   or  when  fat,  weights  for  the  different  ages  should      < 
be  about  as  follows:  Boars  over  two  years  old,  seven  hundred  (700) 
pounds.     Sows  over  two  years  old,  six  hundred  (600)  pounds.     Boars 
eighteen   months    old,    six   hundred    (600)    pounds.      Sows    eighteen 
months  old,  five  hundred    (500)   pounds.     Boars  one  year  old,   four 
hundred  and  fifty  (450)  pounds.    Sows  one  year  old,  four  hundred  and 
fifty  (450)  pounds.     Boars  and  sows  six  mo-nths  old,  one  hundred  and 
eighty    (180)    pounds.      All  hogs  in  just  fair  breeding  condition,  one- 
fourth  less  for  size.      The   keeping   and   chance  that   a  young  boar         , 
has  cuts  quite  a  figure  in  his  size  and  should  be  considered,  other  points 
being  equal.     Fine  quality  and  size,  combined,  are  desirable      .  .       .  .      10 
Objections:    Overgrown,    coarse,   flabby,   loose   appearance,    gangling,        j 
hard   to   fatten;    too   fine,   undersize;   short,   stubby,   inclined   to 
chubby  fatness.    Not  a  hardy,  robust  animal. 

Action  and  style — Action  vigorous,  easy  and  graceful.  Style  attractive; 
high  carriage;  and  in  males  testicles  should  be  prominent  and  of 

about  the  same  size,  and  yet  not  too  large  or  pouchy 3 

Objections:  Clumsy,  slow,  awkward  movement;  low  carriage,  waddling 
or  twisted  walk.  A  seeming  tired  or  lazy  appearance;  not  stand- 
ing erect  and  firm. 

Condition — Healthy,  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales  and  sores ;  soft  and  mellow 
to  the  touch;  flesh  fine;  evenly  laid  on  and  free  from  lumps  and 
wrinkles.  Hair  soft  and  lying  close  to  the  body;  good  feeding 

qualities 2 

Objections:  Unhealthy,  skin  scaly,  wrinkled,  scabby  or  harsh,  flabbi- 
ness  or  lumpy  flesh;  too  much  fat  for  breeding.  Hair  harsh,  dry 
and  standing  up  from  the  body;  poor  feeders;  deafness,  partial  or 
total. 


518  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 

Points 
Disposition, — Lively,  easily  handled  and  seemingly  kind  and  responsive 

to  good  treatment 2 

Objections:  Cross,  sluffgish,  restless,  wild  or  of  a  vicious  turn. 
Symmetry  of  points — The   adaptation   of   all   the  points,   size   and   style 

combined  to  make  the  desired  type  or  model 2 


Total. 


The  Chester  White  breed  of  swine  is  of  American  origin. 
It  is  a  pure  white  breed,  except  for  the  occurrence  of  an 
occasional  blue-black  spot  in  the  skin.  Any  black  or  red 
hair  indicates  impurity  of  blood.  In  size,  the  Chester  "White 
ranks  among  the  large  breeds. .  Mature  boars  in  fair  flesh 
should  weigh  about  600  pounds,  and  mature  sows  about  500. 
Boars  and  sows  six  months  old  weigh  about  175  pounds  in 
fair  condition.  Rather  distinctive  features  of  this  breed 
are  a  nearly  straight  face,  and  ears  that  droop  or  break 
over  one-third  to  one-half  their  length.  Much  emphasis 
is  placed  on  the  ears  being  fine  of  texture  and  carried  so 
as  to  break  over  neatly.  Erect  ears  are  not  characteristic 
of  the  breed.  Good  specimens  show  a  fairly  short  head, 
although  long  heads  are  rather  common.  The  back  on  well- 


Fig.  286. — Chester  White  sow,  "Barget  C,"   first  prize  in  class  at  Ohio 

State  Fair. 


LARD  TYPE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE        519 

fattened  animals  has  great  width  and  arch  of  rib,  as  viewed 
from  one  end,  while  the  side  view  should  show  a  strong 
arch  in  the  back  line.  Chester  "Whites  tend  to  be  rather 
fine  of  bone  for  the  weight  they  carry.  The  pasterns  are 
often  too  sloping  and  appear  weak  and  unable  to  give  proper 
support  to  the  body.  Coats  of  curly  hair  occasionally  occur 
with  this  breed  and,  while  not  popular,  do  not  disqualify 
for  registration. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOB  CHESTER  WHITE  SWINE. 

(Adopted  by  the  Chester  White  Record  Association,  1913.) 

Points 

Head  and  face — Head  short  and  wide;  cheeks  neat;  jaws  broad  and 
smooth;  forehead  medium,  high  and  wide;  face  short  and  smooth; 

nose   neat,   tapering  and   slightly  dished 4 

Objections:    Head  long,  narrow  or  coarse;   cheeks  too  full;  forehead 
low  and  'narrow;  jaws  contracted  and  weak;  face  long,  narrow  and 
straight;  nose  coarse,  clumsy  or  dished  like  the  Berkshire. 
Eyes — Bright,  large,  clear  and  free  from  wrinkles  or  overhanging  f at      .  .        2 

Objections:  SmaM,  deep  set,  surrounded  by  wrinkles  or  fat. 
Ears — Drooping  at  tip  to  give  graceful   appearance;   thin,  soft,  pointing 

outward   and   forward ;    well   proportioned   to   size   of  body      .  .       .  .         2 
Objections:   Too  large  and  coarse;  thick,  lopping;  lying  too  near  the 

face;  stiff,  erect  or  too  small.     Not  under  control. 
Neck — Wide,   deep,   short   and   nicely   arched ;    neatly   tapering  from  the 

shoulder .  .        2 

Objections:  Narrow,  thin,  long,  flat  on  top;  tucked  up;  not  extending 

down  to  breast  bone. 
Jowl — Smooth,  neat,   firm,  full,  carrying  fullness  well  back  to  shoulders 

and   brisket   when   head   is   carried   up   level 2 

Objections:   Light,  rough,  and  deeply  wrinkled,  too  large  and  flabby, 

not  carrying  fullness  back  to  shoulders  and  brisket. 
Shoulders — Broad,    deep   and   full,   extending   in  line  with  the  side  and 

carrying  size  down  to  line  of  belly C 

Objections:  Deficient  in  width  or  depth,  extending  above  line  of  back; 
thick  beyond  line  of  sides  and  hams;  shields  on  boars  too  coarse 
and  prominent. 

Chest — Heart  girth  large,  wide,  deep  and  full;  even  underline  to  the 
shoulder  and  sides,  with  no  creases;  giving  plenty  of  room  for  the 
heart  and  other  organs,  making  a  large  girth,  indicating  much  vi- 
tality. Brisket  smooth,  even  and  broad;  wide  between  the  legs  and 

extending  well  forward,  showing  in  front 12 

Objections:  Pinched  appearance  at  the  top  or  bottom,  or  tucked  in  back 
of    forelegs;    showing    too    -narrow    between,    the    legs;    not    d^ijth 
enough  back  of  the  shoulder.     Brisket  uneven,  narrow,  not  prom- 
inent. 
Back  and  loin — Broad,   straight  or  slightly  arched,  uniform   width,  free 

from   lumps  or  rolls,   same  height  and  width  at   shoulder  as  at  ham      14 
Objections:  Narrow,  swayed,  humped,  creasing  back  of  shoulders,  sun- 
fi»h  shaped,  uneven  width,  lumps  or  rolls. 


520  JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 

Points 

Sides  and  ribs — Sides  full,  smooth,  deep,  carrying  size  down  to  line 
of  belly,  even  with  line  of  hum  and  shoulder.  Ribs  long,  well  sprung 

at  top  and  bottom,  giving  animal  a  square  form 9 

Objections:    Sides:    Flat,   thin,   flabby,  uneven  surface,   compressed  at 

bottom,  shrunken  at  shoulder  and  hain.     Ribs:  Too  short,  /(at. 
Belly  and  flank — Belly  same  width  as  back,   full,   straight,   drooping   as 
low    at    flank    as    at   bottom    of    chest;    line    of    lower    edge    running 
parallel  with  sides.     Flank   full   and  even  with  body,  equalling  heart 

girth  .  . 4 

Objections — Belly  narrow,  pinched,  sagging  or  flabby.  Flank  thin, 
tucked  up  or  drawn  in,  less  than  heart  girth  or  length  of  body 
from  top  of  head  to  root  of  tail. 

Hams  and  rump — Broad,  full,  long,  wide  and  deep,  admitting  of  no  swells; 

buttocks  full,  neat  and  clean ;   stifle  well  covered  with  flesh,    nicely 

tapering    toward    the    hock;     rump    slightly    rounding    from    loin    to 

root  of  tail,  same  width  as  back,  making  an  even  line  with  sides      .  .      10 

Objections:  Narrow,  short,  not  filled  out  to  stifle,  too  much  cut  up  in 

crotch  or  twist,  not  coming  down  to  hock;  buttocks  flabby;  rump 

flat,  narrow,  too  long,  too  sharp  or  peaked  at  root  of  tail. 

Legs  and  feet — Legs  medium  length,  strong  and  straight,  set  well  apart 

and  well  under  body ;    bone   of  good   size,   firm,    well  muscled,   wide 

above  knee    and    hock,    round    and    tapering  below   knee    and   hock, 

enabling  the  animal  to   carry   its  weight  with  ease ;   pasterns   short 

and  nearly  upright.     Feet  short,  firm,  tough,  animal  standing  well  xip 

on  toes 9 

Objections:    Legs  too  short  or  too  long,  weak,   crooked,  too   clone  to- 
gether; muscle*  weak;   bone  too  large  and  coarse.,  without  toper: 
pasterns  long,   crooked    or   slim.      Hoofs   Jong,   slim,    weak;    toes 
spreading,  crooked  or  turned  uj>. 
Tail — Small,    smooth,    nicely   tapering,    root   slightly   covered   with  flesh; 

carried  in  a  curl 1 

Objections:  Coarse,  too  long,  clumsy,  straight. 
Coat — Fine,  either  straight  or  wavy,  with  preference  for  straight,  evenly 

distributed   and   covering   the   body  well ,°> 

Objections:  Bristles,  swirls,  hair  coarse,  thin,  standing  up,  not  evenly 

distributed  over  all  the  body  except  the  belly. 

Color — White.  Red  or  black  spots  in  hair  disqualify,  but  blue  spots 
in  hide  (commonly  known  as  freckled)  while  objectional  and  should 

be  discouraged,    do  not   argue   impurity   of  blood      .  . 2 

Objections:  Color  any  other  than  white. 

Size — Large  for  age  and  condition.  Boars  two  years  and  over,  if  in 
good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds;  sows  same  age 
and  condition,  not  less  than  450  pounds.  Boars  eighteen  months 
old,  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  400  pounds;  sows  ?,~>o. 
Boars  twelve  months  old,  not  less  than  350  pounds;  sows  I5UO. 
Boars  and  sows  six  months  old  not  less  than  150  pounds  each,  and 

other    ages    in    proportion       H 

Objections:  Overgrown,  coarse,  uncouth,  hard  to  fatten. 
Action  and  style — Easy  and  graceful ;  high  carriage ;   active ;    gentle  and 
easily    handled.      In   males,    testicles    should   be   readily    seen,    and    of 

same    size    and    carriage         3 

Objections:  Sluggish,  awkward,  low  carriage,  wild,  vicious.  In  males, 
testicles  not  distinctly  visible,  nor  of  same  size  and  carriage. 

Condition — Healthy   and  mellow  touch,    fat   evenly  laid  on 2 

Objections:  Harsh  to  touch,  flabbiness,  fat  in  lumps  on  back  or  sides. 

Disposition — Quiet  and  gentle        2 

Objections:  Cross,  restless,  quarrelsome. 


LARD  TYPE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


521 

Points 
the   points, 


Symmetry   or    adaptation   of    points — The    adaptation    of    all 

site  and  style  comlnncd   to  inaivc  the  desired  type  or  model       .  .       .  .         3 

Total 1UU 

Disqualifications  for  registry: 

1.  Sows    scoring   less   Hum    do   points. 

2.  Boars  scoring  less  than  70  points. 

3.  lied    or   black    hair   in    co;il. 

4.  Barren  or  stunted  animals. 

The  Duroc-Jersey  breed  of  swine  is  of  American  origin, 
and  has  gone  through  its  most  important  development  in 
the  middle  west,  especially  in  Ohio.  This  is  a  red  breed, 
the  color  varying  from  a  light  sandy  red  to  a  dark  cherry 
red.  The  brighter  color  is  more  popular.  Very  dark  red 
or  chestnut  is  objectionable.  Black  spots  in  the  skin  are 
also  unpopular.  In  size,  the  Duroc-Jersey  ranks  among  the 
large  breeds.  Boars  two  years  old  or  over,  in  fair  condi- 
tion, should  weigh  about  600  pounds,  and  sows  of  the  same 
age  and  condition  about  500  pounds.  Boars  twelve  months 
old,  in  fair  condition,  should  weigh  about  350  pounds,  and 
sows  of  the  same  age  and  condition  about  300  pounds. 


Fig.  287. — Duroc-Jersey  sow,  "Pearl  M.  C.' 


522  '   JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

Boars  of  this. breed  are  reported  to  liave  weighed  1,000 
pounds  and  more.  The  face  of  the  Duroc- Jersey  is  either 
nearly  straight  or  slightly  dished,  the  nose  of  medium 
length,  and  the  ears  drooping  forward,  the  top  third  break- 
ing over.  Young  Duroc- Jersey  males  often  show  consider- 
able length  and  coarseness  of  face,  but  this  feature  may  be 
more  or  less  outgrown.  Two  types  of  Duroc-Jerseys  are 
more  or  less  to  be  seen,  a  large-bodied,  strong-framed, 
stretchy  sort,  and  a  more  refined  and  compact  kind,  that 
matures  early  and  does  not  attain  the  largest  size.  Size 
with  quality  is  what  is  attracting  attention  with  present  day 
breeders.  To  secure  this  the  body  should  be  long,  the  back 
strongly  arched,  the  ribs  well  sprung,  and  with  plenty  of 
depth.  Large,  strong  bone  is  a  much  desired  feature,  with 
the  animal  standing  well  on  the  toes.  The  Duroc-Jersey 
has  been  much  improved  since  the  year  1900,  and  smooth- 
ness of  fleshing  is  especially  emphasized  by  the  best  breeders. 
Heaviness  of  shoulder  and  creases  on  the  body  are  regarded 
with  special  disfavor.  The  Duroc-Jersey  should  show  a 
long,  wide,  level  rump  and  thick,  well  filled-out  thighs,  al- 
though the  ham  lacks  the  roundness  and  fullness  so  often 
seen  in  Poland-China.  In  temperament  the  Duroc- 
Jersey  ranks  well,  being  active,  yet  usually  quiet  and  easily 
handled. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  DUROC-JERSEY  SWINE. 

(Adopted  by  the  National  Duroc-Jersey  Record  Association.) 

Points 

Head  and  Face — Head  small  in  proportion  to  size  of  body,  wide  between 
eyes;  face  nicely  dished  (about  half  way  between  Poland-China  and 
Berkshire),  and  tapering  well  down  to  nose;  surface  smooth  and 

even 4 

Objections:    Large   and   coarse,   narrow   between   eyes,  face   straight, 
crooked  nose  or  too  much  dished. 

Eyes — Lively,  bright  and  prominent 2 

Objections:  Dull,  weak  and  obscure. 

Ears — Medium,    moderately    thin,    pointing   forward    and    downward   r,nd 

slightly  outward,  carrying  a  slight  curve,  attached  to  head  neatly     .  .         2 
Objections:  Very  large,  round  or  nearly  so;  too  swinging  or  flabby,  not 
of  same  size,  or  different  positions,  and  not  under  control. 

Neck — Short,    thick   and   very    deep ;    slightly   arching 2 

Objections:  Long,  shallow,  thin. 


LA  HI)    TYI'K    BHKKDS    OF    SWIXK  523 

Jowl — Uroad,  full  and  neat,  carrying  fullness  back  to  point  of  shoulders, 

and    in    line    with    breast    bone '2 

Objections:  Too  large,  loose  and  flabby,  or  too  small,  thin  and  wedging. 

Shoulders — Moderately    broad,    very    deep    and    full,    and    not    extending 

above  line  of  back;   carrying  thickness  well  down 6 

Objections:  Shin'l.  thin.  .v/m//«/r,  e.rfcndim/  above  line  of  back;  boars 
under  one  year  old  heavily  shielded. 

Chest — Large,   very  deep,   filling  full   behind   shoulders,   and  breast  bone 

extending  well    forward    so    as    to    be   readily   seen 12 

Objections:  Flat,  shallow,  or  not  extending  well  down  between  forelegs. 

Back  and  loin — Medium  in  breadth,   straight  or  slightly  arching;  carry- 

ing   even    width    from    shoulder  to   ham:    surface   even    and    smooth       ..       11 
Objections:  Narrow,  creased  behind  shoulders;  swayed  or  humped  up. 

Sides  and  ribs — Sides  very  deep,  medium  length ;  level  between  shoulders 
and  hams,  and  carrying  out  full  down  to  belly.  Ribs,  long,  strong,  and 

sprung  in  proportion   to  width  of   shoulders  and  hams 9 

Objections:  Flnbh//,  created .  Nlxtllnti'  and  not  curri/ing  proper  width 
from  tup  to  bill/din. 

Belly  and  flank — Straight   and  full,  and  carrying  out  full  to  line  of  sides. 

Flank  well  down  to  lower  line  of  sides 4 

Objections:  Narroiv,  tucked  up,  sagging  or  flabby.     Flanks  tucked  up 

or  drawn  in. 

Hams  and  rump — Broad,  full  and  well  down  to  hock.  Buttocks  full  and 
come  nearly  down  to  and  fill  full  between  hocks.  Rump  should  have 
a  rounding  slope  from  loin  to  root  of  tail ;  same  width  as  back,  and  well 

filled   out    around  tail 10 

Objections:  Hams  narroic.  xliort,  thin;  not  projecting  well  down  to 
hock*:  cut  u}>  too  liit/li  in  crotch.  Jliimp  narrow,  flat  or  peaked 
at  root  of  tail,  or  ton  xti-en. 

Legs  and  feet — Medium  in  si/.e  and  length;  straight,  nicely  tapering;  wide 
apart  and  well  set  iipon  the  body,  pasterns  short  and  strong.  Feet 

short,   firm,    tough      .  .        ....       .  .       '•' 

Objections:    I*C<JN   e.rtrcnicl//    Jon;/   or   xhort,   slim,   coarse,   crooked;   //.v 
lurye   brio ic  the  knee-   «nd  hock  o.v  above;  set  too  close  together; 
Jioekn  turned:  in  or  out   of  xtrtiiyJit  line.       Hoofs  long,  slim   and 
weak;   toes  Nj>rctn]ln</  and   crooked. 
Tail — Medium  large  at  base  and  nicely  tapering  and  rather  bushy  at  point        1 

Objections:   Extremely  heavy,  too  long  and  ropy. 

Coat,:  Moderately  thick  and  fine,  straight,  smooth,  and  covering  the  body  well        3 
Objections:    Manif   brittle*-;    hulr  coarse,  harsh  and  rough;   wavy  and 
curled;  swirls  or  not  evenly  laid  over  the  body. 

Color:   Cherry  red,  without  other  admixtures        - 

Objections:  Yeri/  dark  red  or  shady  brown;  very  light  or  pale  red; 
black  xyio/x  orer  the  body;  black  flecks  on  belly  and  legs  not  de- 
sired, but  admissible. 

Size — Large  for  age  and  condition ;  boars  two  years  old  or  over  should 
weigh  600  pounds;  sows,  same  age  and  condition,  500  pounds;  boars 
eighteen  months  475  pounds;  sows,  400  pounds;  boars  twelve  months, 
350  pounds,  and  sows  300  pounds;  boars  and  sows  six  months  of  age, 
!.")!»  pounds.  These  figures  are  for  animals  in  fair  show  condition  .  .  i> 
Objections:  Rough,  coarse  and  lacking  in  feeding  qualities. 

Action  and  style — Action,  vigorous  and  animated;   style,  free  and  easy    .  .         3 
Objections:    Dull  and   stupid,   awkward   and  wobbling.      Testicles  not 
easily  seen,  nor  of  same  size  or  carriage;  too  large  or  only  one 
showing. 


524  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

Points 
Condition — Healthy;    skin  free   from   any  scurf,   scales,   sores   and  mange, 

and  flesh  laid  evenly  over  entire  body  and  free  from  lumps 2 

Objections:    Unhealthy,  scales,  sores  and  mange;  too  fat  for  breeding 
purposes;  hair  harsh  and  standing  up;  poor  feeders,  etc. 

Disposition — Very  quiet  and  gentle;  easily  handled  or  driven 2 

Objections:  Wild,  vicious  or  stubborn. 
Symmetry  of  points        .  .        3 

Total 100 

Disqualifications. 

Form:  Ears  standing  erect;  small  cramped  chest  and  crease  back  of  shoulders, 
no  as  to  cause  a  depression  in  the  back  easily  noticed;  seriously  deformed  legs 
and  badly  broken  down  feet.  Size:  Very  small  or  not  over  half  size  as  given 
in  this  standard.  Condition:  Excessive  fatness;  barrenness;  seriously  diseased; 
blindness.  Score:  Less  than  50  points.  Pedigree:  Not  eligible  to  record. 


Fig.   288. — Cheshire  boar,    twice  grand  champion   of  breed  at  New  York 
State  Fair.      (Photo  by  courtesy  American  Agriculturist.) 

The  Cheshire  breed  of  swine  originated  in  Jefferson 
County,  New  York.  In  color,  the  Cheshire  should  be  pure 
white,  excepting  for  the  occasional  occurrence  of  small 
blue-black  spots  on  the  skin.  The  size  is  of  the  medium 
class,  and  the  standard  of  excellence  gives  400  to  600  pounds 
for  hogs  of  the  breed  when  of  mature  size  and  well  fattened. 
Special  characteristics  of  the  Cheshire,  other  than  those 


LARD  TYPE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE         525 

above  noted,  are  a  tendency  to  shortness  of  head,  a  moder- 
ately dished  face,  erect  or  nearly  erect  small  ear,  wide  and 
slightly  arched  back,  and  hams  of  the  thick-fleshed  type. 
These  pigs  are  little  known  outside  of  New  York  and  have 
had  a  very  limited  distribution. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  CHESHIRE  SWINE. 

(Adopted  by  the  Cheshire  Swine  Breeders'  Association.) 

Points 

Head — Short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in  proportion  to  length  of  body.  .  8 

Face — Somewhat  dished,  and  wide  between  the  eyes 8 

Jowl — Medium  in  fullness        3 

Ears — Small,   fine,   erect,   and  in  old  animals  pointing  slightly   forward..  5 

Neck — Short   and  broad 3 

Shoulders — Broad,  full,   deep 6 

Girth  around  heart          8 

Back — Long,  broad,  straight  nearly  to  root  of  tail        10 

Sides — Deep  and  full,  nearly  straight  on  bottom  line 7 

Flanks — Well  back  and  low  down,  making  flank  girth  nearly  equal  to  heart 

girth 3 

Hams — Broad,  and  nearly  straight  with  back,  and  running  down  well  toward 

hock ."' 10 

Legs — Small  and  slim,  set  well  apart,  supporting  body  well  on  toes      .       .  .  10 

Tail — Small,  slim  and  tapering        

Hair — Fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quantity 


Color — -White,  and  colored  hairs  to  disqualify 

Skin — Fine  and  pliable,  small  blue  spots  objectionable,  but  allowable 


3 
3 

2 
3 
Symmetry — Animal  well  proportioned,  handsome  and  stylish 8 

Total 100 

The  Hampshire  breed  of  swine  is  of  American  origin, 
having  long  been  known  in  Kentucky  and  southern  Indiana 
HIM  lor  the  name  of  Thin  Rind.  The  early  career  of  this 
breed  in  the  middle  west  was  as  a  bacon  type  of  pig,  but 
in  recent  years  it  has  been  bred  in  the  corn  belt  so  as  to 
closely  approach  the  lard  type  hog.  However,  it  is  more 
comparable  with  the  leaner  type  of  Berkshire.  The  Hamp- 
shire is  a  black  breed  with  a  white  belt  about  the  body. 
This  belt,  which  should  encircle  the  body  between  shoulders 
and  hips,  may  be  quite  narrow,  or  rather  wide,  there  being 
no  uniformity  on  this  point.  A- band  four  to  12  inches 
wide  just  back  of  the  shoulders,  is  most  approved.  It  is 
not  at  all  unusual  for  Hampshire  sows  to  farrow  solid  black 
pigs,  which  illustrates  the  difficulty  in  uniformity  of  repro- 
duction of  the  desired  white  belt.  In  size  the  Hampshire 


526  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

is  of  medium  class,  although  some  large  examples  have 
been  produced.  Boars  sometimes  attain  600  pounds  weight, 
although  this  is  not  often  the  case.  Mature  breeding  males 
will  usually  weigh  from  400  to  500  pounds  and  females 
from  350  to  400  pounds.  A  standard  weight  for  boars  or 
sows  at  twelve  months  is  300  pounds.  The  head  of  the 
Hampshire  is  moderately  long  and  straight,  of  just  fair 
width,  and  with  more  or  less  erect  ears  that  point  slightly 
forward.  The  shoulders  tend  to  be  smooth  and  well  laid 


Fig.    289. — "The    Hampshire    is   a   black    breed    with    a    white   belt   about 

the  body." 

in,  the  back  of  only  medium  width,  yet  well  supported.  The 
rump  often  lacks  in  width,  but  shows  ample  length,  and 
the  hams  are  of  medium  thickness  only,  the  twist  often 
showing  a  shallow  development.  Hampshire  pigs  may  show 
notable  smoothness  of  body  and  be  lacking  in  depth  of  rib, 
compared  with  the  more  prominent  lard  type  breeds.  Form- 
erly, the  Hampshire  inclined  to  be  somewhat  leggy,  but 
present  day  type  pigs  of  the  breed  are  not  subject  to  special 
criticism  in  this  regard.  In  a  general  way,  the  Hampshire 
is  a  very  trim,  active  breed  of  hogs,  that  produces  excellent 
meat.  In  recent  years  it  has  grown  greatly  in  popularity 
in  the  middle  western  states. 


LARD  TYPE   BREEDS   OF   SWINE  527 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  HAMPSHIRE  SWINE. 

(Adopted   by   the   Hampshire   Record    Association.) 

Points 

Head    and    face — Head    medium    length,    rather    narrow,    cheeks    not     full. 
Face,  nearly  straight  and  medium  width  between  the  eyes;  surface  even 

and  regular         I 

Objections:    Head   large,    coarse    and    ridgy;    nose    crooked    or    mn<-i, 

dished. 

Eyes— Bright,  and  lively,  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  surroundings      .  .       .  .        2 
Objections:  Small,  deep  or  obscure,  or  vision  impaired  by  fat  or  other 

causa. 

Ears — Medium  length,  thin,  slightly  inclined  outward  and  forward    .  .       .  .         '-! 
Objections:  Large,  coarse,  thick,  large  or  long  knuckle,  drooping  or  not 

under  good  control  of  the  animal. 

Neck — Short,  well  set  to  the  shoulders,  tapering  from  shoulder  to  head      .  .        2 
Objections — Long,  thick  or  bulky. 

Jowl — Light,  and  tapering  from  neck  to  point ;  neat  and  firm 2 

Objections:  Large,  broad,  deep  or  flabby. 

Shoulders — Deep,   medium  width  and  full,  well  in  line  with  back      .  .       .  .         (5 
Objections:  Narrow  on  top  or  bottom,  thick  beyond  line  with  Hide*  and 

hams. 
Chest — Large,  deep  and  roomy;  full  girth,  extending  down  even  with  line 

of  belly I'J 

Objections:    Narrow     at     top    or    bottom;    small    girth,    cramped    <>r 

tucked  up. 

Back   and   loin — Back   straight   or   slightly    arched,    medium   breadth,    w'th 
nearly   uniform   thickness  from  shoulders  to  hams   and  full   at  loins; 

sometimes  higher   at   hips  than   shoulders 15 

Objections:  Narrow,  creased  or  droopy  behind  shoulders;  surface  rid  mi 

or  uneven. 

Sides  and  ribs — Sides  smooth,  full,  firm,  carrying   size  evenly  from  shoul- 
ders to  hams;  ribs  strong,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom 8 

Objections:  Sides  thin,  fla>,  flabby  or  creased,  or  ribs  not  well  *i>nt.ng. 
Belly  and  flank:  Straight  and  full,  devoid  of  grossness;  flank  full  and  run- 
ning nearly  on  line  with  sides 6 

Objections:   Belly  sagging  or  flabbi/ ;  flank  thin  or  tucked  up. 
Hams  and  rump:    Hams  of  medium  width,    long  and  deep;   rump  slightly 
rounded  from  loin  to  root  of  tail ;  buttock  full,  neat  and  firm ;  devoid 

of  flabbiness  or  excessive  fat 10 

Objections:  Ham  narrow,  cut  too  high  in  crotch;  buttock  flabby ;  rump 

too  fat,  too  narrow  or  too  steep,  or  peaked  at  root  of  tail. 
Legs  and  feet:    Legs  medium  length,   set   well   apart   and   squarely  under 
body,  wide  above  knee  and  hock,   and  rounded   and  well  muscled  be- 
low, tapering;  bone  medium,  pasterns  short  and  nearly  upright;  toes 
short  and  firm,  enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease.  .       .  .      10 
Objections:  Legs  too  long,  slim,  crooked,  coarse  or  short;  weak  HIUX- 
cles  above  hock,  and  knee  bone  large  and  coarse,  and  legs  without 
taper;   pasterns   too  long  to  correspond   with   length   of  lea,   too 
crooked  or  too  slender;  feet  long,  slim  and  weak;  toes  .v/*/v«</ /////. 
too  long,  crooked  or  turned  up. 

Tail — Medium  length,    slightly  curled 1 

Objections:  Coarse,  long,  clumsy,  swinging  like  a  pendulum. 

Coat — Fine,  straight,  smooth 2 

Objections:  Bristles  or  swirls,  coarse  or  curl//. 
Color — Black,  with  exception  of  white  belt  encircling  body,   including  fore 

legs 2 

Objections:   White  running  high  on  hind  legs,  or  extending  more  than 
one-fourth  length  of  body,  or  solid  black. 


528 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


Points 
Size — Large  for  condition;   boar,  two  years  old  and  over,   450  Ibs.;   sow, 

same   age,   400  Ibs. ;    eighteen  months  boar,    350   Ibs. ;    sow,    325  Ibs. ; 

twelve  months  boar  or  sow,  300  Ibs. ;  six  months,  both  sexes,  140  Ibs.        5 
Action  and  style — Active,   vigorous,   quick   and   graceful;    style,    attractive 

and  spirited        4 

Objections:  Dull,  sluggish  and  clumsy, 
Condition- — Healthy,  skin  free  from  all  defects,  flesh  evenly  laid  on  and 

smooth  and  firm,  not  patchy,  and  devoid  of  all  excess  of  grossness      .  .        4 

Objections:    Skin  scurfy,   scaly,  mangy   or  otherwise  unhealthy;   hair 

harsh,  dwarfed  or  cramped,  not  growthy. 
Disposition — Docile,  quiet,  and  easily  handled 3 

Objections:   Cross,  restless,  vicious,  or  with  no  ambition. 


Total.  . 


.    100 


Disqualifications. 

Color — Spotted,  more  than  two-thirds  white,  or  solid  black. 

Form — Any  radical  deformity,   ears  very  large   or  drooping  over  eyes,   crooked 

or  weak  legs,  or  broken-down  feet. 
Condition — Seriously    impaired     or     diseased,     excessive    grossness,  .  barrenness 

in  animals  over  two  years  of  age,  chuffy  or  squabby  fat. 
Size — Not  two-thirds  standard  weight. 
Pedigree — Not  eligible  to  record. 


I 


Fig.  290. — "The  distinguishing  feature  of  this 
breed  is  a  solid  instead  of  cloven  hoof."  (Photo 
by  courtesy  Mr.  G.  C.  Kreglow.) 


The     Mulef  oot 

breed  of  swine  is 
of  uncertain  nativ- 
ity. In  its  im- 
proved form  it  is 
an  American  prod- 
uct, having  re- 
ceived its  first  im- 
p  o  r  t  a  n  t  develop- 
ment in  Ohio  and 
Illinois.  It  may  be 
regarded  as  of  the 
lard  type.  The  dis- 
tinguishing feature 
of  this  breed  is  a 
solid,  instead  o  f 
cloven  foot,  sugges- 
tive of  the  hoof  of  a 
mule  in  miniature. 
The  color  is  usually 
a  solid  black, 


LARD   TYPE   BREEDS   OF   SWINE  529 

though  white  points  are  admissible.  The  size  is  medium ; 
boars  over  two  years  of  age  should  weigh  about  500 
pounds  in  fair  condition,  and  sows  of  the  same  age 
about  400  pounds.  Boars  or  sows  at  twelve  months 
of  age  weigh  about  300  pounds.  In  general  conformation 
the  improved  Mulefoot  closely  resembles  the  Poland-China, 
the  blood  of  which,  it  may  be  assumed,  has  been  at  some 
time  used  on  the  Mulefoot.  Aside  from  color  and  foot 
character,  no  striking  differences  are  manifest  between 
good  examples  of  the  two  breeds.  The  Mulefoot,  however, 
shows  a  greater  variation  in  character  than  usually  occurs 
with  an  improved  breed.  The  claim  has  been  made  by  its 
promoters  that  this  is  a  cholera-proof  breed,  but  there  is 
no  satisfactory  evidence  to  support  this  claim. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  MULEFOOT  SWINE. 

(Adopted  l»y  the  National  Mulefoot  Hog  Record  Association.) 

Points 
Head  and  face — Head  medium  length.     Face  broad  between  the  eyes,  nearly 

straight,  cheeks  full,  surface  even  and  regular -1 

Objections:   Head  large,  coarse,  crooked  or  much  dished,  long  -nose. 
Eyes — Bright  and  lively,  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  surroundings        .  .       .  .         2 
Objections:  Entail,  deep  or  obscure,  or  vision  impaired  b,n  fat  or  other 

cause. 
Ears — Medium  length,  thin  tipped,   slightly  inclined  outward  and   forward. 

knuc.k   small  and  well  set  to  the  head 2 

Objections:  Large,  coarse,  thick;  large  or  long  knnck  drooping  or  -not 

under  good  control  of  the  animal,  or  too  erect. 

Neck — Short,  well  set  to  the  shoulders,  tapering  from  shoulder  to  head      .  .        2 
Objections:  Jjong,  thick  or  bulky. 

Jowl — Full,  neat  and  firm,  tapering  from  neck  to  point        2 

Objections — Thin  or  flabby. 

Shoulders — Medium  width,   deep,   full,   not  extending  above  line  of  back.  .         0 
Objections:   Narrow,  cramped,  flat,  e.rfen<l!ng  above  line  of  back  ami 

sloping  too  much  from  -point  to  tup. 
Chest — Large,  deep   and  roomy;   full  girth,   extending  down  even  with  line 

of  belly 12 

Objections:  Narrow  at  top  or  bottom,  small,  girth,  cramped  or  tucked 

up. 
Back  and  loin — Slightly  arched,  good  breadth,  with  uniform  thickness  from 

shoulders  to  hams;   full  at  loin         15 

Objections:  Narroic,  created  or  drooped  beJrind  ttlnmlderx,  surface  ridgy 

or  unei'i'ii. 

Sides  and  ribs — Sides  full,  smooth  form,  carrying  size  evenly  from   shoul- 
ders to  hams;  ribs  strong,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom 8 

Objections:  Sides  thin,  flat,  flabby,  or  creased;  ribs  not  well  sprung. 
Belly  and  flank — Straight   and  full,   devoid  of  coarseness;   flank  full   and 

running  nearly  on  line  with  side 6 

Objections:  Belly  sagging  or  flabby,  coarse;  flank  thin  or  tucked  up. 


530  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

Points 

Hams  and  rump  J  Hams  full,  long  and  deep ;   rump  slightly  rounded  from 

loin  to  root  of  tail;  buttock  full,  neat  and  firm        10 

Objections:  Ham  narrow,  cut  too  high  in  crotch;  rump  too  steep  or  too 
narrow,  peaked  at  root  of  tail;  buttock  flabby. 

Legs  and  feet — Legs  medium  length,  set  well  apart  and  squarely  under  body, 
wide  above  knee  and  hock,  rounded  and  well  muscled  below;  tapering; 
medium  bone;  pastern  short  and  nearly  upright.  Foot  solid,  short, 

smooth,  enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease* 10 

Objections:  Legs  too  long  or  too  short,  slim,  crooked  or  coarse;  mus- 
cles weak  or  light;  joints  coarse,  not  tapering;  pastern  too  long, 
crooked  or  slender;  foot  long,  slim,  weak  or  turned  up. 

Tail — Medium  length,   straight  or  slightly  curled 1 

Objections:  Coarse,  long,  clumsy,  swinging. 

Coat — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  soft  to  touch 2 

Objections:   Bristles  or  swirls,  coarse  or  curl)/  hair. 

Color — Black;  white  points  admissible 2 

Objections:  Too  much  white  on  feet,  any  white  spots  on  body  or  head. 

Size — Large  for  condition;  boars  two  years  and  over  should  weigh  500 
pounds,  sow  same  age,  450;  twelve  months  boar  or  sow,  300;  six 
months  boar  or  sow,  175  pounds 5 

Action  and  style — Active,  vigorous,  graceful,  style  attractive 4 

Objections:  Dull,  sluggish,  clumsy. 

Condition — Healthy;   skin  free  from  defect;  flesh  smooth,  firm  and  evenly 

laid  on        4 

Objections:  Unhealthy,  skin  scurfy,  scaly  or  mangy;  hair  harsh,  not 
growthy. 

Disposition — Docile,  quiet  and  easily  handled        3 

Objections:  Cross,  restless,  nervous,  sluggish  or  without  ambition. 

Total. ...      .100 


CHAPTER  LI. 

JUDGING  THE  BACON  TYPE  OF  SWINE. 

THE  bacon  hog  is  a  well-recognized  market  type  and  is 
increasing-  in  importance  with  the  demand  for  leaner  pork, 
and  especially  breakfast  bacon.  The  most  valued  charac- 
teristic of  the  bacon  type  is  a  long  side,  that  when  properly 
cured  produces  the  choicest  grade  of  bacon.  Such  bacon 
as  this  has  alternate  layers  of  lean  meat  and  fat,  firm  of 
quality,  without  the  heavy  layer  of  external  fat  so  much 
a  feature  of  the  lard  hog.  In  years  past,  in  southern  Eng- 
land, in  the  county  of  Wilts  (usually  termed  Wiltshire), 
the  people  produced  and  fed  a  class  of  hogs  from  which 
was  made  the  choicest  bacon.  Gradually  the  fame  of  the 
Wiltshire  side  and  bacon  became  widespread,  so  that  to-day 
this  name  is  supposed  to  be  representative  of  the  choicest 
quality  of  bacon.  This  ideal  bacon  hog  is  commonly  pro- 
duced in  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Denmark  and  to  a 
considerable  extent,  in  Canada,  Large  Yorkshire  or  Tarn- 
worth  hogs  or  their  grades,  represent  the  best  bacon  type. 
Animals  of  their  class,  when  properly  fed  such  foods  as 
barley,  peas,  oats,  skim  milk,  etc.,  produce  the  choicest 
grades  of  bacon.  Indian  corn  is  not  only  too  fattening, 
but  produces  a  softer  grade  of  fat  than  is  approved  of  by 
the  bacon  judges.  Bacon  hogs,  raised  in  the  corn  belt  and 
fed  corn  as  the  major  part  of  their  rations,  after  some  gen- 
cm  lions  lose  much  of  the  more  important  bacon -producing 
characteristics,  and  tend  more  and  more  toward  the  lard 
type.  Hogs  of  the  bacon  type  are  comparatively  uncommon 
in  Hie  United  States.  Farmers  of  this  country  have  looked 
1o  the  hog  as  an  important  consumer  of  the  great  corn  crop, 
and  the  lard  type  seems  in  part  to  result  from  this  feeding. 

531 


532  JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  THE  BACON  TYPE  OF  HOG. 

Standard  of  Score  of 
SCALE  OF  POINTS  Perfect          Hog 

Score        Studied 
A — GENERAL  APPEARANCE:  34  Points: 

Weight.  Should  be  well  developed  for  age.  Market 
hogs  should  weigh  160-200  Ibs.  as  most  ap- 
proved weights ••.  5 

Form,  long,  smooth,  deep,  strong  top  line,  underline 
straight,  belly  trim  and  neat,  entire  form  well 
balanced  10  ... 

Quality,  hair  fine,  skin  smooth  and  free  of  creases, 
bone  clean  and  strong,  flesh  firm  and  smooth 
at  all  parts 10 

Condition,  well  covered  with  firm  flesh,  especially  on 

back  and  loin;    not  too  fat        6  .... 

Style,   active  and   sprightly,    walking  true,   standing 

up  well  on  toes 3  .... 

B— HEAD  AND  NECK,  8  Points: 

Snout,  medium  length  and  not  coarse        1  .... 

Face,  broad  between  eyes,  poll  broad  and  full        .  .         1  .... 

Eyes,  of  good  size,  full  and  bright 1  .... 

Jowl,   fair  width    and   muscular,   very   neat   and   not 

flabby 2  .... 

Ears,  moderately  thin,  fringed  with  fine  hair  .  .       .  .         1  .... 

Neck,  medium  length,  muscular,  without  arch  at  top.  .        2  .... 

C — FOREQUARTERS,  12  Points: 

Shoulders,    smooth,    upright,   well   laid   in,    compact, 

no  wider  than  back 6  .... 

Breast,  good  width  and  full 3  .... 

Forelegs,  set  well  apart,  medium  length  and  straight, 
bone  clean  and  not  coarse,  pasterns  erect,  toes 

not  spread,  and  erect 3  .... 

B — BODY,  33  Points: 

Back,  medium  width,  rising  slightly  above  a  straight 

line,  making  slight  arch  from  neck  to  tail  .  .       .  .         6  .... 

Loin,  wide  as  rest  of  back,  strong  and  full,  not  much 

arched 5  .... 

Ribs,   well   sprung,   then  sharply  vertical,   long      .  .        4  .... 

Sides,  long,   fairly  deep,   flat,   straight   from   shoulder 

to  ham,  smooth 8  .... 

Chest,    full,    even    with   shoulder,    with   no   tucked-up 

appearance  above  or  back  shoulders 5  .... 

Flanks    full  and  low,  not  flabby 2  .... 

Belly,    firm,      trim,      thick,      yet     not      flabby      nor 

shrunken       3  .... 

E — HINDQUARTERS,   13  Points: 

Rump,  same  width  as  back,  long,  level,  tail  set  fairly 

high        4  

Hams,  full,  not  flabby,  thighs  tapering  toward  hocks, 

without   folds  or  creases 0  .... 

Hind  legs,  set  well  apart  at  hocks,  medium  long, 
straight,  bone  clean  and  strong,  pasterns  Tip- 
right,  toes  not  spread  and  erect  3 


Total  points 100 


JUDGING  THE  BACON  TYPE  OF  SWINE 


533 


In  the  following  discussion,  emphasis  will  be  placed  on 
those  features  that  are  specifically  characteristic  of  the 
bacon  hog".  Other  features  that  have  a  similar  significance 
in  both  lard  and  bacon  type,  and  which  have  already  been 
discussed  in  the  case  of  the  lard  pig,  need  not  be  so  exten- 
sively considered  here.  Persons  interested  in  the  details  of 
judging  swine  should  first  be  familiar  with  the  pages  pre- 
ceding, that  discuss  the  methods  and  details  involved  in 
judging  lard  hogs. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  bacon  hog  as  compared 
with  the  lard  type,  shows  considerable  length  of  body,  dis- 
tinctly less  thickness  and  depth,  a  greater  length  of  leg, 
and  much  less  fullness  about  the  jowl,  neck,  shoulder  and 
ham.  As  an  animal  of  this  type  walks  about,  the  onlooking 
judge  is  impressed  with  a  conformation  in  which  length 
and  narrowness  are  associated  with  a  sort  of  litheness  of 


Fig.  291. — "The  general  appearance  of  the  bacon  hog,  as  compared  with 
the  lard  hog,  shows  considerable  length  of  body,  distinctly  less  thickness 
and  depth,  a  greater  length  of  leg,  and  much  less  fullness  about  the  Jowl, 
neck,  shoulder  and  ham." 


534  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

form  and  activity  of  limb,  freedom  of  motion,  quite  in  con- 
trast with  the  shorter,  thicker,  more  phlegmatic  lard  hog. 

The  weight  of  the  bacon  hog  naturally  depends  on  the 
age,  condition  and  purpose.  For  market  purposes,  from 
160  to  200  pounds  is  most  acceptable,  although  individuals 
may  reach  225  pounds  and  meet  with  favor.  When  espe- 
cially fed  for  bacon  production,  however,  it  is  conceded 
that  the  farther  the  animal  passes  beyond  the  200  pounds 
weight,  the  more  the  tendency  to  produce  an  undesirable 
amount  of  fat.  Therefore,  in  judging  market  weight,  these 
figures  must  b©  given  careful  consideration.  With  five 
points  as  a  perfect  score  for  weight,  an  animal  weighing 
250  pounds  might  be  graded  off  30  per  cent,  giv- 
ing a  score  of  3.5  points,  thus  indicating  undesirable 
weight.  In  case  one  is  scoring  breeding  hogs  of  this  type 
these  figures  would  not  apply.  Persons  scoring  breeding 
stock  on  weight  might  adopt  300  pounds  for  twelve  months 
of  age,  with  600  pounds  for  mature  females  and  700  pounds 
for  boars.  Yet  these  weights  are  frequently  exceeded,  espe- 
cially by  Large  Yorkshires  and  Tamworths. 

The  form  of  the  bacon  hog,  as  has  already  been  expressed, 
should  show  great  proportionate  length,  with  strongly  sus- 
tained back,  though  but  little  arched.  From  a  side  view, 
the  form  appears  very  smooth,  free  of  creases,  and  having 
fair  depth,  though  with  plenty  of  daylight  below,  and  with 
back  and  belly  lines  rather  parallel.  As  the  form  is  sur- 
veyed from  either  in  front  or  behind,  it  seems  narrow,  with 
opposite  sides  parallel  from  shoulder  to  ham.  Roundness 
and  fullness  are  distinctly  lacking  in  any  great  degree. 

Quality  in  the  bacon  hog  is  not  essentially  different  in 
character  from  that  of  the  lard  type.  However,  much  em- 
phasis is  placed  on  smoothness  and  freedom  from  creases 
or  wrinkles,  for  a  side  thus  affected  would  be  quite  impos- 
sible for  making  prime  bacon.  The  judge  should  discrim- 
inate sharply  against  any  roughness  and  creases  about  the 
shoulder  and  sides.  A  fine  coat  of  hair,  uniformly  and 
smoothly  distributed  over  the  body,  is  an  indicator  of  su- 


JUDGING  THE  BACON  TYPE  OF  SWINE 


535 


perior  quality  of  fleshing,  such  as  is  much  desired  in  bacon 
production.  Roughness  of  bone  is  most  easily  to  be  noted 
with  bacon  hogs,  and  should  be  discriminated  against  se- 
verely. The  bone  should  be  clean  and  neat.  The  head 
being  comparatively  lean  and  long  with  this  type  also  gives 
expression  to  quality  in  a  considerable  degree.  However, 
lack  of  quality  here  is  measured  rather  by  roughness  and 
coarseness  than  by  length. 
One  may  see  some  bacon  hogs 
with  very  long  heads  which 
in  no  sense  lack  quality. 

Condition  in  the  bacon  hog 
is  a  very  special  feature  of 
this  type.  The  frame  should 
be  covered  with  firm  flesh, 
without  a  thick  layer  of  fat. 
Nothing  suggestive  of  rolls  of 
fat  at  any  part  of  the  body, 
or  unevenness  of  condition, 
meets  with  favor  in  the  eyes 
of  the  bacon  judge.  The  en- 
tire covering  should  rather  be 
neatly  laid  on,  showing  a  firm 
consistency  of  flesh  so  highly 
essential  in  bacon.  The  touch 
of  the  fingers  to  back,  side 
shoulder  or  ham,  should  give 
a  firm,  yet  mellow  response,  • 

without  the  deepness  of  fleshing  felt  in  the  lard  type.    The 
buyer  of  bacon  hogs  places  great  emphasis  on  this  condition. 

Style  and  action  in  the  bacon  hog"  are  quite  notable.  In 
action,  in  particular,  this  is  manifested  by  a  long  stride 
and  much  activity,  due  to  a  rather  muscular  conformation, 
very  good  length  of  limb  and  perhaps  nervous  temperament. 

The  head  and  neck  of  the  bacon  hog,  as  combined  fea- 
tures, exhibit  length  to  a  marked  degree.  In  fact,  it  is  im- 
possible to  maintain  bacon  type  with  short  head  and 


Fig.  292. — "As  the  form  is  sur- 
veyed from  either  in  front  or  be- 
hind, it  seems  narrow." 


536  JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 

neck,  characteristic  of  the  lard  type.  The  snout  is  nat- 
urally the  part  which  shows  length  to  the  most  striking 
degree,  and  sometimes  with  the  Tamworth,  the  length 
of  snout  is  extreme.  Bacon  producers  do  not  discrimi- 
nate against  hogs  with  long  snouts  if  they  possess 
plenty  of  quality.  The  face  should  be  broad  between  the 
eyes,  and  but  very  little  dished  if  at  all.  The  dish  face 
is  rather  a  characteristic  of  the  shorter  bodied,  fatter  type 
of  hog.  For  a  time,  Large  Yorkshire  breeders  favored  the 
dish  face,  and  breeding  with  this  point  in  view  resulted  in 
reducing  size  and  increasing  the  tendency  toward  the  lard 
type.  In  other  words,  thickness  and  shortness  are  incon- 
sistent with  bacon  conformation.  The  eyes  of  the  bacon 
hog  should  never  be  surrounded  by  wrinkles  of  fat;  they 
should  be  prominent  and  easily  seen.  If  the  whites  can 
be  clearly  seen,  which  is  usually  the  case,  then  the  eyes  are 
not  lacking  in  size.  Occasionally  the  eyelids  are  red  and 
inflamed  and  the  animal  looks  far  from  attractive.  Tlic 
jowl  should  be  very  trim  and  neat,  firm  and  muscular, 
rather  than  round  and  heavy  with  fat.  A  heavy  jowl  is 
an  indication  of  a  tendency  toward  fat  production  on  the 
part  of  this  type  of  hog.  Look  for  a  neatly  rounded,  smooth 
jowl,  as  expressing  ideal  conformation  and  quality.  Ears 
inclining  to  be  thin  and  long,  rather  than  thick  and  short, 
are  characteristic  with  the  bacon  sort.  The  neck,  as  has 
been  already  stated,  with  this  type,  inclines  to  be  long  and 
lacking  in  flesh.  It  is  important,  however,  not  to  have  too 
much  length  and  leanness,  for  this  implies  waste  and,  in 
breeding  stock,  lack  of  stamina  and  poor  feeding  qualities. 
A  medium  between  the  short,  thick,  fat  neck  and  the  long, 
lean  one  is  what  is  desired.  Day  states  *  that  ' '  a  short, 
thick  neck  with  an  arch,  or  crest  of  fat  on  top,  such  as  is 
commended  in  the  fat  hog,  will  cause  the  side  of  bacon  to 
be  heavy  at  the  shoulder  and  neck  end,  and  this  is  the  cheap 
end  of  a  side  of  bacon."  Therefore,  any  tendency  to  an 
arch  is  quite  undesirable,  and  the  judge  should  discriminate 

1  Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  1913,  p.  16. 


JUDGING  THE  BACON  TYI'K   OF  SWINE  537 

against  it.  The  top  of  the  neck,  however,  should  not  be 
too  narrow  and  ridge-like  near  the  head.  It  should  rather 
round  up  over  the  top  in  full  form  as  one  evidence  of  neces- 
sary vigor. 

The  f orequarters  of  the  bacon  hog:  include  the  shoulders, 
breast  and  forelegs.  The  shoulders,  as  a  first  essential, 
should  be  smooth,  light,  and  neatly  laid  in,  and  bacon  hog 
judges  emphasize  these  features.  This  being  one  of  the 
cheaper  parts  of  the  body,  a  heavy  shoulder  is  not  wanted. 
Another  feature  of  conformation,  also,  is  rather  an  upright 
carriage  of  shoulder,  for  the  reason 2  that  when  in  this 
position  the  animal  is  * '  comparatively  short  from  the  back 
of  the  shoulder  to  the  snout,  but  long  from  the  back  of  the 
shoulder  to  the  rump."  "When  viewed  from  above,  the 
shoulders  should  appear  compact  on  the  top,  and  well  cov- 
ered, rather  than  open  and  lacking  in  covering.  The  thick- 
ness over  the  shoulder  tops  should  not  exceed  the  general 
back  width,  in  fact  it  should  be  slightly  less.  If  it  is 
notably  more,  then  the  conformation  is  heavy  and  the  out- 
side of  the  blade  is  not  well  covered.  The  breast  should 
be  wide  and  full,  the  sternum  projecting  even  with  the 
front  of  legs  or  beyond,  indicating  constitution.  Depth  of 
breast  is  also  sought  for,  but  with  the  bacon  type  this  is  not 
emphasized  as  with  the  lard  type.  If  the  chest  lacks  ma- 
terially in  depth,  then  there  will  be  a  lack  in  depth  of  side, 
which  is  highly  undesirable.  The  forelegs,  excepting  for 
length,  should  possess  the  same  general  characteristics  found 
in  the  lard  hog.  They  incline  to  be  long,  however,  and 
should  not  be  severely  scored  by  the  judge,  unless  their 
length  is  associated  with  a  shallow  depth  of  body. 

The  body  of  the  bacon  hog  furnishes  the  most  important 
and  highest-priced  cuts  of  pork,  for  in  it  we  find  the  back, 
loin  and  side.  The  back,  as  a  first  essential,  must  not  be 
too  wide,  but  rather  of  medium  width,  for  the  wide  back  is 
usually  associated  with  fat  production.  It  should  be  well 
carried,  arching  very  slightly,  ^specially  at  the  loin,  and 

2  Productive  Swine  Husbandry    p    17 


538 


JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 


just  enough  to  furnish  strong  support.  A  sagging  back  in 
a  breeding  animal  should  be  scored  severely,  excepting  for 
old  age  or  in  the  case  of  a  sow  heavy  in  pig.  In  the  case 

of  hogs  ready  for 
the  market,  then 
some  sag  of  back  is 
not  so  important 
from  the  butcher's 
point  of  view,  pro- 
vided there  is  the 
right  width  and 
covering.  The  loin 
furnishes  the  most 
valuable  cut  in  the 
back,  and  should 
have  the  same 
width  as  the  rest  of 
the  back.  This  part, 
however,  in  prime 
condition,  is  very 
strong,  and  is  cov- 
ered with  a  smooth 
and  firm  layer  of 
flesh.  Extending 
over  the  back  and 
loin  as  a  whole,  for 
it  is  all  back,  in 
fact,  there  should 
be  a  layer  of  fat 
from  an  inch  to  an 
inch  and  one-half  in 

thickness,  extending  smoothly  and  uniformly  from  neck  to 
loin.  This  fat  covering  is  an  important  point  with  bacon  pro- 
ducers, and  any  excess  in  fat  deposit  is  much  discriminated 
against  by  buyers,  for  the  best  grades  of  bacon  carry  no  thick 
layers  of  fat.  One  of  the  fine  points  in  feeding  bacon  hogs,  is 
to  determine  when  the  condition  of  flesh  is  just  right,  and  so 


Fig.  293. — "There  should  be  a  layer  of  fat 
from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thickness, 
extending  smoothly  and  uniformly  from  neck  to 
loin." 


JUDGING  THE  BACON  TYPE  OF  SWINE 


539 


sell  before  the  hogs  are  overdone.  In  scoring  on  this  point, 
grade  the  animal  in  high  condition  more  severely  than  the 
one  somewhat  lacking  in  this  respect.  The  ribs  in  a  bacon 
hog  of  the  best  type  have  a  strong  arch  and  then  come 
clown  sharply  into  rather  a  vertical  position.  This  is  a  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  ribbing,  and  through  this  conforma- 
tion is  secured  the 
flat  side  so  much 
valued  by  the  ba- 
con curer.  The 
ribs  should  also  be 
long,  so  as  to  pro- 
vide depth  of  body 
and  size.  The  side 
of  the  bacon  hog, 
to  meet  a  critical 
standard,  must  fur- 
nish as  completely 
as  possible  four 
things,  viz.,  length, 
depth,  smoothness 
and  condition. 
"From  a  packer's 
standpoint, "  says 
Day,3  "a  bacon  hog  cannot  have  too  long  a  side,  but 
the  breeder  must  exercise  care  that  he  does  not 
secure  this  extreme  length  at  the  expense  of  constitu- 
tion. .  .  .  It  is  absolutely  necessary,  however,  that  the  hog 
should  have  a  good  length  of  side,  much  more  than  is  found 
in  the  fat  type."  In  the  scale  of  points,  eight  points  are 
credited  to  the  sides,  or  really  12,  if  we  include  the  ribs. 
No  other  part  is  allowed  so  many  points  and,  in  judging, 
this  must  be  kept  in  mind.  Emphasize  the  four  essential 
features  in  the  bacon  side,  and  score  sharply  if  the  animal 
is  much  defective  in  these  characteristics.  Note,  in  particu- 
lar, smoothness  and  condition  of  fleshing.  The  chest,  as 

*  Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  1913,  p.  18. 


Fig.  294. — "  A  bacon  hog  cannot  have  too  long 
a  side." 


540 


JUDGING   FARM    ANIMALS 


the  part  enclosing  the  vital  organs,  should  be  relatively 
thick  and  deep.  No  depressions  back  of  the  shoulders, 
or  hollow  or  tucked-up  flanks  should  be  seen.  A  full,  firm- 
fleshed  flank  is  essentially  associated  with  constitutional  vigor 
and  a  good  side  of  bacon  as  well.  The  belly,  though  fur- 
nishing some  of  the  cheapest  meat,  should  be  neat  and  trim, 

thicker  in  its  flesh- 
ing here  than  in 
the  lard  type,  and 
quite  lacking  in 
flabby  condition  or 
shrinkage  about  the 
flanks.  Paunchiness 
or  flabby  condition 
of  the  belly  should 
meet  with  distinct 
disfavor. 

The  hindquar- 
ters of  the  bacon 
hog1  involve  hips, 
rump,  hams  and 
legs.  The  rump 
should  be  long,  of 
the  same  width  as 
the  back,  be  carried  level  rather  than  droopy,  and  be 
slightly  rounded  over  the  top  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
The  flat-topped,  broad  rump  is  likely  to  carry  too  much  fat. 
The  hips  should  not  be  wider  apart  than  the  width  of  the 
back,  and  should  be  smoothly  covered.  The  hams,  also 
called  the  gammons  by  some  British  authorities,  have  a 
shape  very  distinctive  to  this  type  •  of  hog.  They  should 
exhibit  much  less  thickness  and  fullness  than  does  the  ham 
of  the  lard  type,  being  more  split  up  between,  showing  com- 
paratively little  twist,  yet  having  a  long,  smooth  muscle  of 
firm  appearance,  fleshing  neatly  and  completely  about  the 
lower  thigh  quite  to  the  hock.  The  pared-off  lower  thigh 
is  easily  seen  from  either  one  side  or  behind.  A  comparison 


Fig.  295. — "A  comparison  of  the  hind  ends  of 
lard  and  bacon  types  of  hogs  brings  out  in  sharp 
contrast  the  difference  in  thickness  of  hams,  as 
well  as  spread  and  height  between  the  legs." 


JUDGING  THE  BACON  TYPE  OF  SWINE  541 

of  the  hind  ends  of  lard  arid  bacon  types  of  hogs,  brings 
out  in  sharp  contrast  the  difference  in  thickness  of  hams, 
as  well  as  spread  and  height  between  the  legs.  Allowance 
should  be  made  in  passing  on  the  hind  legs,  for  more  close- 
ness between  them  than  usually  prevails  with  the  lard  type, 
a  feature  that  has  no  special  bearing  on  the  correct  posture 
of  legs  and  feet.  Cleanness  and  strength  of  bone,  straight- 
ness  of  leg,  uprightness  of  pasterns  and  proper  placings  of 
toes  should  be  emphasized  just  as  much  as  with  the  lard 
hog.  One  naturally  expects  the  bacon  hog  to  carry  himself 
in  ideal  form  on  toes  and  pasterns,  but  he  is  often  disap- 
pointed in  that  respect.  The  judge  should  not  be  too 
severe  in  his  criticism  of  these  two  features,  unless  they  are 
distinctly  and  markedly  defective.  Furthermore,  the  judge 
should  be  more  exacting  in  the  case  of  a  younjg  breeding 
animal  than  one  going  finished  to  the  shambles. 


CHAPTER  LII. 

JUDGING  BREEDING  SWINE. 

THERE  are  certain  very  essential  things  that  must  be  kept 
in  >  mind  and  understood  when  judging  breeding  swine. 
Where  hogs  are  simply  fed  and  finished  for  the  butcher, 
then  they  are  passed  upon  solely  for  their  value  as  meat, 
having  in  mind  the  standards  already  discussed  in  detail 
in  the  preceding  pages.  But  if  the  hogs  are  to  be  considered 
as  breeding  animals,  to  be  used  for  purposes  of  reproduc- 
tion, then  still  other  qualities  and  characteristics  must  be 
considered.  One  must  have  in  mind  the  ideal  lard  or 
bacon  type,  and  then  either  add  to  or  subtract  from  this 
type,  so  as  to  secure  the  ideal  breeding  conformation  and 
character.  This  requires  consideration  of  the  following 
features  when  applied  to  the  boar  or  sow : 

(a)  Sex  character. 

(6)  Temperament. 

(c)  Size. 

(d)  Frame. 

(<?)  Breed  characteristics. 

(A)— THE  BOAR. 

Sex  character  in  the  boar  is  manifested  in  several  ways. 
The  head  is  strong,  is  larger  than  that  of  the  female,  and 
shows  pronounced  masculinity.  After  attaining  a  few 
months  of  age  the  young  males  begin  to  show  a  slight  in- 
crease in  size  of  head  and,  as  maturity  approaches,  heavy 
tusks  appear  on  the  sides  of  each  jaw.  Thus  in  the  mature 
boar  one  looks  for  a  strong  head,  with  what  might  be  re- 
garded as  a  tendency  to  coarseness,  as  shown  in  the  larger 
features,  thickness  of  skin  and  coarse  type  of  hair.  The 

542 


JUDGING   BREEDING  SWINE 


543 


neck  should  be  strong,  somewhat  thick  and  perhaps  a  trifle 
arched,  though  much  arch  is  undesirable.  In  the  shoulders, 
sex  is  strongly  manifested,  in  the  shields,  heavy  coverings 
of  tough  hide,  which  are  very  undesirable,  and  expert 
judges  always  give 
the  preference  to 
the  boar  with 
smooth  and  well- 
laid  shoulder.  The 
entire  front  part 
of  the  boar  tends 
to  broaden  and 
spread  with  age. 
Such  undesirable 
development  is  lia- 
ble to  be  repro- 
duced in  the  pro- 
geny. The  sex  of 
the  boar  is  also 
prominent  in  his 
reproductive  o  r  - 
garis.  The  scrotum 
or  sac  containing 
two  testicles,  ap- 
pears in  an  incon- 
spicuous form  on 
the  young  male 

pig,  between  the  hams  and  just  below  the  vent  or  anus, 
and  with  maturity  this  part  assumes  considerable  size,  and 
projects  out  with  distinct  prominence.  The  judge  should 
see  that  there  are  two  of  these  glands,  of  equal  size  and 
exposure.  Sometimes  but  one  "seed,"  as  the  stockman 
terms  it,  comes  down  from  the  scrotum  and,  though  such 
an  animal  may  be  a  breeder,  he  is  regarded  as  defective, 
and  should  be  so  judged. 

The  temperament  of  the  boar  should  be  active  to  a  certain 
extent,  but  not  nervously  so.     He  is  naturally  inclined  to 


Fig.  296. — "In  the  mature  boar  one  looks  for 
a  strong  head."  "Berryton  Duke,  Jr."  77341, 
:i  noted  Kansas  Berkshire  boar.  (By  courtesy 
Orange  Judd  Pub.  Co.) 


544  JUDGING   FARM   ANIMALS 

fight  with  strange  boars  and  to  insist  on  having  his  own 
way.  There  is  altogether  more  self-assertion  than  in  the 
case  of  either  barrow  or  sow,  and  sometimes  he  is  blessed 
with  too  much  of  this  quality.  Frequently,  in  the  show 
ring,  he  champs  his  jaws  and  froths  at  the  mouth,  a  tem- 
peramental action  peculiar  to  his  sex. 

The  size  of  the  boar  should  somewhat  exceed  that  of  the 
sow  or  sexless  animal.  At  maturity  he  should  show  a 
marked  increase  in  size  over  the  female,  though  no  definite 
figures  can  be  established  for  this  difference.  It  will  de- 
pend on  the  breed  more  than  anything  else.  Large  size  of 
male  is  not  so  essential,  however,  as  some  think.  In  fact, 
if  associated  with  coarseness  it  is  undesirable.  Perhaps 
100  pounds  greater  weight  than  the  sow,  in  the  same  flesh, 
will  not  be  much  out  of  the  way.  The  young  boar  should 
have  plenty  of  size  for  his  age.  If  the  boar  is  undersized 
while  young,  he  will  not  be  likely  to  attain  the  size  he 
should  at  maturity. 

The  frame  of  the  boar  is  to  be  seen  in  the  character  of 
the  bone,  and  in  the  breeding  animal  of  this  sex  it  should 
be  medium  to  large  in  size,  with  plenty  of  quality.  Many 
breeders  prefer  a  large  bone,  especially  as  seen  in  the  legs. 
Too  much  refinement  is  objectionable,  because  at  maturity 
the  animal  cannot  sustain  his  weight  well  and  be  used  to 
the  best  advantage  for  breeding,  unless  in  a  crate.  The 
boar,  in  ideal  condition,  has  a  strong  frame,  well  covered 
with  muscles,  such  as  indicate  plenty  of  vitality.  The 
boar  one  sees  so  often  at  the  shows,  heavily  covered  with 
fat,  overdone  and  lacking  in  the  activity  so  much  desired 
in  breeding  animals,  is  hardly  a  fit  example  of  what  the 
breeding  boar  should  be.  The  judge  should  discriminate 
against  the  frame  unduly  submerged  in  fat. 

Breed  characteristics  are  important  factors  to  consider 
when  one  is  judging  pure  bred  animals.  Each  breed  is  char- 
acterized by  certain  features  of  conformation  and  color. 
The  judge  should  be  familiar  with  these  characteristics. 
The  breeds  differ  more  or  less  in  shape  of  head,  carriage  and 


JUDGING   BREEDING  SWINE  545 

type  of  ear,  conformation  of  body  as  expressed  in  width  of 
back  and  depth  and  length  of  middle,  and  in  color  and  coat 
of  hair.  Some  breeds  closely  resemble  each  other  in  certain 
things,  such  as  head  or  color,  for  example.  Between  yet 
other  breeds  there  are  striking  differences  in  various  ways. 
The  boar  should  be  a  good  model  of  the  breed,  and  whether 
he  is  or  not  will  depend  on  how  closely  he  compares  with 
the  breed  standard. 

(B)— THE  SOW. 

Sex  character  in  the  sow  is  especially  seen  in  the  fem- 
inine type  of  head  and  neck ;  the  smooth,  well-laid  shoulder ; 
length  and  depth  of  body,  and  mammary  glands.  The  head 
of  the  sow  should  show  distinct  refinement,  and  lack  of  the 
self-assertive  character  so  manifest  in  the  boar.  The  neck 
should  be  free  of  any  thick,  heavy  crested  condition,  but 
should  be  trim  and  neat,  and  appear  a  trifle  longer  than 
with  the  boar.  The  shoulders  should  be  smooth  and  laid  in 
neatly,  so  that  the  body  will  be  no  wider  at  this  part  than 
further  back,  excepting  when  in  thin  flesh,  due  to  nursing, 
etc.  Any  thickness  and  heaviness  of  shoulder  tends  to  mas- 
culinity. The  most  distinguishing  sex  features  of  the  sow 
are  the  mammary  glands  or  udder,  which  occupy  the  entire 
space  of  the  lower  part  of  the  belly.  One  gland  extends 
along  each  side,  with  a  series  of  teats  at  regular  intervals. 
Six  sound  teats  on  each  side  are  to  be  desired,  though  there 
is  some  variation  in  this  regard.  One  frequently  finds  sows 
with  blind  or  defective  teats,  due  to  injury,  lack  of  use,  etc. 
Emphasis  should  be  placed  by  the  judge  on  the  necessity 
for  sound  and  well-placed  teats. 

The  temperament  of  the  brood  sow  is  of  great  impor- 
tance. A  naturally  nervous,  restless  temperament  is  the 
cause  of  great  loss  in  young  pigs,  injured  or  neglected  by 
the  mother.  The  model  brood  sow  will  lie  quietly  after  pig- 
ging, and  while  nursing  her  young  will  move  about  among 
them  with  much  care  and  quietness.  She  is  not  startled 
by  every  noise,  and  grunts  in  a  soothing,  contented  manner 


-;5  JUDGING    FARM    ANIMALS 

to  her  pigs.  In  the  show  ring  one  cannot  always  determine 
this  matter  of  temperament,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  brood  sow 
that  is  quiet  and  easily  moved  about  may  be  regarded  as 
having  the  most  desirable  temperament.  Occasionally  one 
finds  a  sow  that  is  lazy  and  awkward,  lacking  in  activity, 
and  not  disposed  to  attend  to  her  pigs.  She  is  almost  as 
bad  as  the  high  strung,  nervous  sow,  for  she  rarely  raises 
a  litter. 

The  size  of  the  brood  sow  should  be  large,  without  coarse- 


Fig.  297. — "The  most  distinguishing  sex  feature  of  the  sow  is  the 
mammary  glands  or  udder." 

ness.  The  present  day  tendency  is  to  demand  brood  sows 
with  plenty  of  size  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  quality. 
In  the  show  ring  the  larger  animal,  other  things  being  equal, 
is  given  the  preference.  One  reason  for  the  great  popu- 
larity of  the  Duroc-Jersey  in  the  middle  west  is  the 
considerable  size  of  the  matured  females.  The  compact, 
tidy,  quick-maturing  sort,  that  at  one  time  was  in  favor, 
has  given  way  to  the  larger,  slower-maturing,  more  ca- 
pacious animal.  A  brood  sow  weighing  around  400  to  450 
pounds  in  the  best  of  breeding  condition  will  meet  with  favor. 
Some  breeds,  like  the  Large  Yorkshire,  at  maturity,  weigh 


JUDGING   BREEDING   SWINE  547 

600  pounds  and  more.  The  most  desirable  size  will  quite 
depend  on  breed  influence. 

The  frame  of  the  brood  sow  is  more  expansive,  with 
greater  stretch  than  in  the  case  of  the  boar.  The  ribs  show 
the  depth  so  important  in  maternity,  while  emphasis  is 
placed  on  length  of  body  and  width  and  strength  of  back. 
This  body,  neat  and  smooth  in  its  lines,  should  be  easily 
carried  on  strong  feet  and  legs.  The  side  view,  in  particu- 
lar, should  show  a  frame  well  covered,  not  in  high  condi- 
tion,  and  bearing  evidence  of  first-class  reproducing  ca- 
pacity. With  too  much  length  of  frame  comes  a  tendency 
of  the  back  to  sag.  This  is  indicative  of  weakness,  conse- 
quently a  strong  carriage  of  back  is  desirable.  The  judge, 
however,  should  not  severely  discriminate  against  a  sow 
heavy  in  pig,  for  the  great  weight  within  naturally  pulls 
down  the  back  line.  Also,  old  brood  sows,  that  have  raised 
a  number  of  litters,  tend  to  sag  in  the  back  with  age,  but 
young  sows  should  show  a  frame  especially  strong. 

The  breed  characteristics  of  the  brood  sow  need  no 
special  discussion  here,  for  what  has  been  stated  regarding 
these  features  in  the  boar,  will  have  quite  a  general  applica- 
tion with  the  sow. 


CHAPTER  LIII. 

DESCRIPTIVE  NOTES  ON  THE  BACON  TYPE 
BREEDS  OF  SWINE. 

The  Large  Yorkshire  breed  of  swine  is  of  English  an- 
cestry, having  long  been  bred  in  England,  and  being  the 
most  common  of  the  British  breeds  of  swine,  where  it  is 
known  as  the  Large  White  Breed.  It  is  white,  and  should 
show  no  other  color,  except  occasional  small  blue-black 
spots  on  the  skin.  This  is  one  of  the  largest  breeds  of 
swine,  and  cases  are  on  record  of  individuals  weighing  in 
excess  of  1,200  pounds.  Mature  boars,  in  fair  flesh,  at  two 
years  of  age  or  over,  should  weigh  about  700  pounds,  and 
sows  of  the  same  age  and  condition,  about  600  pounds.  At 
one  year  of  age,  either  boars  or  sows  should  weigh  about 
350  pounds.  This  is  a  bacon  type  of  swine,  when  properly 
bred,  and  presents  the  following  special  characteristics: 
a  rather  long,  narrow  and  slightly  dished  face ;  a  large  erect 
or  semi-erect  ear,  pointing  forward;  a  smoothly  laid-in 
shoulder;  narrow,  long,  yet  strong,  back;  comparatively 
wide  loins;  long,  smooth,  moderately  deep  sides;  long, 
fairly  level,  but  only  medium  wide  rump ;  long,  wide,  but 
not  thick  hams,  with  light  twist ;  and  a  tendency  to  more 
length  of  leg  than  is  popular  with  many  American  pork 
producers.  In  general,  one  is  impressed  with  the  large  per- 
centage of  side  meat  and  much  less  thickness  of  back,  jowl, 
shoulder  and  ham,  than  obtains  with  the  lard  type.  This 
is  quite  a  prolific  breed,  and  the  udder  on  the  breeding 
females  should  be  well  developed,  and  show  twelve  or  more 
teats. 

In  Great  Britain  there  is  a  type  of  Yorkshire  that  is 
shorter  of  head,  and  thicker  all  through,  known  there  as 

548 


NOTES   ON   THE   BACON  TYPE  549 

the  Middle  White.  In  the  United  States  there  is  a  tendency 
to  show  hogs  of  this  type  as  Large  Yorkshires,  as  they  uu-H 
with  more  favor  from  our  swine  raisers.  In  Great  Britain, 
a  Large  Yorkshire  (Large  White)  may  farrow  a  litter, 
some  of  the  pigs  of  which  may  be  Middle  Whites,  and  will 
be  so  recorded  on  the  records  of  the  National  Pig  Breeders' 
Association  of  Great  Britain.  There  is  a  still  smaller  type 
known  as  the  Small  Yorkshire  (Small  White)  that,  at  one 
time,  was  very  common  in  England.  This  was  a  very  short, 


Fig.    298. — Large    Yorkshire   boar,    bred   and    owned    in    England   by   Mr. 
Sanders  Spencer.      (Photo  by  courtesy   American  Agriculturist.) 

wide-bodied,  extremely  dished-faced  pig,  the  breeding  of 
which  has  been  about  discontinued.  Recently  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  of  England  abolished  a  place  in  its 
premium  list  for  the  Small  White  breed,  which  is  equivalent 
to  condemning  it  for  further  breed  consideration. 


550  JUDGING  FARM  ANIMALS 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  LARGE  YORKSHIRE  SWINE. 

(Adopted  by  the  American  Yorkshire  Club.) 

Points 

General  outline — Long  and  deep  in  proportion  to  width,  but  not  massive; 
slightly  arched  in  the  back,   symmetrical  and  smooth,  with  body  firmly 

supported  by  well-placed  legs  of  medium  length 5 

Outline  of  head — Moderate  in  length  and  size,  with  lower  jaw  well  sprung, 

and  some  dish  toward  snout,  increasing  with  advancing  maturity      .  .  4 

Forehead  and  poll 1 

Jowl — M>di\im,  not  carried  too  far  back  toward  neck,  and  not  flabby.  ...  1 

Eye — Medium  size,  clear  and  bright        1 

Snout — Turning  upward  with  a  short  curve,  increasing  with  age        .  .       .  .  1 
Ear — Medium  in  size,  standing  well  out  from  head,  nearly  erect,  but  inclin- 
ing slightly  forward 1 

Neck — Of  medium  length,  fair  width  and  depth,  rising  gradually  from  poll 

to  withers,  muscular  but  not  gross,  evenly  connecting  head  and  body.  .  3 
Outline  of  "body — Long,  deep  and  of  medium  breadth,  equally  wide  at  shoul- 
der, side  and  ham ;  top  line  slightly  arched,  underline   straight   .  .       .  -  7 
Back — Moderately  broad,   even  in  width  from  end  to   end;    strong  in  loin; 

short  ribs  of  good  length 10 

Shoulder — Large,  but  not  massive;  not  open  above        6 

Arm  and  thigh — Broad,  and  of  medium  length  and  development 2 

Brisket — Wide,  and  on  a  level  with  underline        3 

Side — Long,  deep,  straight  and  even  from  shoulder  to  hip    .  .       8 

Bibs — Well  arched  and  deep 5 

Heart  girth  and  flank  girth — Good  and  about  equal 8 

Hindquarters — Long,    to    correspond   with    shoulder    and    side;    deep,    with 

moderate  and  gradual  droop  to  tail 5 

Hams — Large,  well  let  down  on  thigh  and  twist,  and  rear  outline  somewhat 

rounded 10 

Twist — Well  down   and  meaty        1 

Tail — Medium,  not  much  inclined  to  curl        1 

Legs — Medium  in  length,  strong,  not  coarse,  but  standing  straight  and  firm  5 

Hair — Abundant,  long,  of  medium  fineness,  without  any  bristles 4 

Skin — Smooth  and  white,  without  scales,  but  dark  spots  in  skin  do  not  dis 

qualify        2 

1 
5 


Color — White  on  every  part 
Movement — Active,  but  not  restless .  . 


Total 100 

The  Tamworth  breed  of  swine  is  of  English  nativity, 
having  had  its  early  development  in  central  England.  Its 
color  is  red,  the  shade  varying  from  light  to  very  dark.  A 
golden-red  hair  in  a  flesh-colored  skin,  free  from  black 
spots,  is  the  most  approved  color  marking.  In  size  this  is 
a  large  breed  of  the  most  distinctive  bacon  type.  The 
average  mature  boar  will  probably  weigh  about  600  pounds, 
and  the  sow  450  pounds.  At  six  months  pigs  will  weigh 


NOTES  OX  THE  BACON  TYPE 


,">.">  1 


about  175  pounds.  This  breed  presents  certain  well-defined 
characteristics,  besides  the  color  and  size.  The  head  is  very 
long  and  straight  of  face,  and  inclines  to  be  slender  of 
snout.  The  forehead  is  retreating,  the  eyes  prominent,  ami 
the  large  ears  lean  forward  but  do  not  break  over.  The 
neck  inclines  to  be  somewhat  long  and  slender,  the  chest  and 
back  narrow,  the  sides  long  and  smooth,  yet  lacking  depth, 
and  the  hams  large  but  deficient  in  thickness  and  showing 


Fig.  299. — Tamworth  sow,  "Brookhill  Fancy,"  a  first  prize- winner.     (Photo 

by  courtesy   American  Agriculturist.) 


very  little  twist.  The  males  at  maturity  often  have  heavy, 
rough  shoulders,  and  as  a  rule,  the  Tamworth  emphasizes 
length  of  leg  to  a  degree  not  common  with  other  breeds 
known  in  America.  This  is  a  very  fecund  breed,  and  breed- 
ing females  should  exhibit  considerable  udder  development 
and  12  or  more  teats.  The  more  improved  Tamworth  has 
a  fair  depth  of  body,  not  excessive,  length  of  leg,  and  su- 
perior smoothness  and  quality.  Shortness  of  head  is  not 
associated  with  the  reproduction  of  bacon  type,  although 


552  JUDGING  FARM   ANIMALS 

a  heavy,  long,  coarse  head  is  objectionable.  The  Tamworth 
is  temperamentally  very  active,  and  in  a  measure  lacks  in 
quiet  disposition. 


OFFICIAL    STANDARD   OF    EXCELLENCE   FOR   TAMWORTH 

SWINE. 

(Adopted  by  the  National  Pig  Breeders'  Association  of  Great  Britain.) 

Color — Golden  red  hair  in  a  flesh-colored  skin,  free  from  black. 

Head — Fairly  long;  snout  moderately  long  and  quite  straight;  face  slightly 
dished,  wide  between  ears. 

Ears — Rather  large,  with  fine  fringe;  carriage  rigid,  and  inclined  slightly 
forward. 

Neck — Fairly  long  and  muscular,  especially  in  boar. 

Chest — Wide  and  deep. 

Shoulders — Fine,  slanting,  and  well  set. 

Legs — Strong  and  shapely,  with  plenty  of  bone,  and  set  well  outside  of  body. 

Pasterns — Strong  and  sloping. 

Feet — Strong,  and  fair  size. 

Back — Long  and  straight. 

Loin — Strong  and  broad. 

Tail — Set  on  high  and  well  tasseled. 

Sides — Long  and  deep. 

Bibs — Well  sprung,  and  extending  well  up  the  flank. 

Belly — Deep,  with  straight  underline. 

Flank — Full,  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters — Long,  wide,  and  straight  from  tip  to  tail. 

Hams — Broad  and  full,  well  let  down  to  hocks. 

Coat — Abundant,  long,  straight,  fine. 

Action — Firm  and  free- spirited. 

Objections — Black  hair,  vert/  light  or  ffinger  hair,  curly  coat,  coarse  mane,  black 
spots  on  skin,  slouch  or  drooping  ears,  short  or  turned-up  snout,  heavy 
shoulders,  blocky  build,  small  heart  (firth,  elephantness,  wrinkled  .vAi/i,  'in- 
bent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoulder. 


APPENDIX. 

RULES    GOVERNING   LIVESTOCK   JUDGING 
CONTESTS. 

IN  view  of  the  great  interest  taking  place  these  days  in 
livestock  judging  contests,  it  has  seemed  appropriate  to 
include,  as  appendix  to  this  volume,  examples  of  rules  and 
regulations  governing  such  contests. 

The  following  rules  are>  based  on  years  of  experience  in 
the  management  of  judging  contests,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  the  most  recent  drafts  on  the  subject. 

RULES   AND   REGULATIONS    GOVERNING    THE   INTER- 
NATIONAL LIVESTOCK  EXPOSITION  LIVE- 
STOCK  JUDGING   CONTEST.* 

(1)  Rules  Governing  Eligibility  of  Contestants. 

1.  Any  farmer's  son  under  twenty-five  years  of  age  who  has 
never  attended  an  agricultural  college  or  agricultural  school,  may 
enter. 

2.  Any  agricultural  college   undergraduate  student  represent- 
ing his  institution,  who  has  never  taken  part  in  any  meat-stock 
or  heavy-horse  judging  contest  of  interstate  or  international  char- 
acter previous  to  the  year  in  which  the  contest  is  held,  may  enter, 
provided  he  is  in  attendance  as  a  regularly  enrolled  student  in  the 
institution  he  represents,  has  taken  two  years'  work  in  that  in- 
stitution, has  not  been  away  from  the  institution  more  than  one 
year  at  a  time  after  first  entering  said  institution,  and  who  has 
at  no  time  served  in  the  capacity  of  animal  husbandry  teacher 
in  any  agricultural  college. 

3.  No   college   shall  be   represented  by   more  than  five  men, 
which  number  shall  constitute  a  team. 

4.  Each  institution   shall  file  with  the   Superintendent  of  the 
Students'  Judging  Contest,  at  the  time  its  students  are  entered, 

*  International  Livestock  Exposition.      Preliminary  Classification,   1916. 

553 


554  APPENT)IX 

;in  authoritative  statement   covering  the  eligibility  oi?  each  of  its 
representatives. 

(2)  Superintendent. 

1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Superintendent  to  see  that  all 
rules  and  regulations  governing1  the  contest  are  duly  carried  out. 
He  shall  see  that  the  contest  is  conducted  with  fairness  and  justice 
to  all  concerned. 

2.  The  Superintendent  shall  have  a  chief  clerk  and  helpers  to 
assist  him  in  superintending  the  students  while  working  on  the 
different  classes  of  stock,  and  to  aid  him  in  such  other  capacities 
as  he  may  require. 

3.  He  shall  direct  the  contestants  which  class  to  judge,  time 
to  commence  work,  and  time  to  stop. 

4.  He  shall  say  nothing  to  a  contestant  concerning  the  method 
to  follow,  either  in  judging'  the  class,  forming  the  reasons,   or 
giving  reasons  before  the  committee. 

5.  The  Superintendent  shall  have  nothing  to  do  with  placing 
the  animals  in  the  various  classes,  nor  with  the  grading  of  the 
placing,  or  the  reasons. 

6.  He  shall  have  charge  of  all  the  grades  given  for  both  plac- 
ing and  reasons,  and  it  shall  be  his  duty  to  have  these  tabulated 
and  totaled,  and  he  shall  deliver  the  result  of  the  contest  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  International  Livestock  Exposition,  who  shall 
publish  the  result. 

(3)  Clerks,  Assistants  and  Attendants. 

The  clerks,  assistants  and  attendants  shall  be  at  the  command 
of  the  Superintendent  and  shall  carry  out  his  orders,  and  none 
of  these  assistants  shall  confer  with  the  contestants,  unless  di- 
rected to  do  so  by  the  Superintendent. 

The  attendants  showing  the  livestock  shall  hold  the  animals  in 
a  careful  manner,  so  that  all  contestants  may  have  a  fair  chance 
to  make  observations  on  the  same. 

(4)  Judges. 

1.  There  shall  be  three  judges  for  each  class  of  stock  judged. 
It  is  preferable  that  two  of  each  set  be  stockmen  (breeders  or 
feeders  of  the  class  to  be  passed  upon),  and  the  third  an  animal 


APPENDIX  555 

husbandry  instructor.    No  one  shall  be  allowed  to  act  as  judge  in 
a  class  in  which   his  animals  are  shown. 

2.  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  committee  of  judges  to  look 
over  the  class  of  stock,  and  of  each  judge  to  decide  as  to  the  order 
in  which  the  class  shall  be  placed,  and  to  decide  on  the  essential 
reasons  for  placing'  the  first  above  the  second,  the  second  above 
the  third,  and  the  third  above  the  fourth.     The  judges  shall  keep 
their  rating's   of  the  animals   secret  until   after   the   contestants 
have  been  before  the  committee. 

3.  When  the  contestant  appears  before  the  committee,  the  clerk 
shall  present  the  contestant's  card  bearing  his  rating  of  the  ani- 
mals and  each  judge  shall  make  a  note  of  the  same  and  grade  it 
as  his  judgment  dictates  and  record  his  grade  for  placing  on  a 
card  bearing  the  contestant's  number.     Fifty  points  shall  consti- 
tute a  perfect  mark  for  placing.     The  contestant  shall  have  two 
minutes  in  which  to  give  his  reasons  for  placing  the  animals. 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  committee  to  hear  those  reasons,  to 
grade  the  same   independently,   and  to  record   their   grade   for 
reasons  on  the  cards  mentioned  above.     Fifty  points  shall  consti- 
tute a  perfect  mark  for  reasons. 

4.  As  soon  as  the  judges  have  recorded  their  grades,  the  clerk 
shall  collect  the  three  cards.     The  three  grades  on  placing  shall 
be    averaged,    and    the    average    shall   stand   as   the   contestant's 
'"••ule  for  placing  that  class. 

5.  The  grade  for  reasons  shall  be  arrived  at  in  the  same  manner. 

(5)  Contestants. 

1.  All  prospective  contestants  must  send  in  their  entries  to  the 
Secretary  of  "International"  Exposition  by  November  15,  1916. 

2.  Regular   entry    forms  will   be   mailed    all   prospective   con- 
testants who  request  the  same  before  November  15,  !!)!(>. 

3.  An  entry  fee  of  $2.00  will  be  charged  each  contestant,  which 
sum  must  be  forwarded  with  the   application.      The  money   re- 
ceived from  this  source  is  to  be  used  in  defraying  the  expenses 
of  the  examiners. 

4.  Each-  college  will  be  restricted  to   entering  five    (5)    men, 
which  number  shall  constitute  a  team. 

5.  Each  contestant    shall   report  to  the  Superintendent  in  the 
amphitheatre  at  7 :  30  A.M.,  Saturday,  December  2,  1916,  when  he 
will  be  assigned  a  number  and  such  instructions  as  the  Super- 
intendent desires  to  give. 


556  APPENDIX 

6.  No  contestant  will  be  permitted  to  inspect  the  livestock  at 
the  International  Livestock  Exposition  prior  to  the  contest.    Any 
transgression  of  this  rule  will  be  sufficient  cause  to  bar  a  student 
from  the  contest. 

7.  No  contestant  shall  wear  any  uniform,  college  colors,  college 
hat,  nor  shall  he  in  any  way  signify  to  the  judges  his  identity  or 
the  identity  of  the  college  which  he  represents. 

8.  While  the  contest  is  in  progress  there  shall  be  no  conferring 
between   contestants   or  between   a  contestant   and   anyone  else, 
except  as  directed  by  the  Superintendent  or  his  representative. 
Any  violation  of  this  rule  will  be  punished  by  the  expulsion  of 
the  offender. 

9.  The  contestants  shall  be  divided  by  the  Superintendent  into 
four  groups,  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  shall  be  so  designated  thereafter 
throughout  the  contest.  In  no  group  shall  there  be  more  than  two 
contestants  from  one  college. 

10.  When  the  four  classes  of  stock  are  brought  in,  Group  A 
contestants  shall  be  assigned  to  one  class,  B  to  a  second  class,  C 
to  a  third  class  and  D  to  the  fourth  class  of  animals.    All  groups 
shall  be  notified  three  minutes  before  time  is  up.     When  final 
time  is  called,  Group  A  shall  move  to  the  second  class,  B  to  the 
third,  C  to  the  fourth  and  D  to  the  first  class,  and  shall  continue 
to  rotate  in  this  way  until  each  group  has  passed  on  every  class 
of  livestock. 

11.  The  contestant  shall  hand  his  card,  bearing  his  number,  the 
descriptive  name  given  the  class  of  animals,  and  his  placing,  to 
the  Supervising  Clerk,  immediately  after  he  finishes  with  each 
class. 

12.  Each  student  shall  be  required  to  give  reasons  on  two  of 
the  three  rings  of  stock  he  has  examined  in  each  class. 

The  contestants  will  be  informed  which  two  of  the  three  rings 
of  livestock  of  each  class  reasons  will  be  required  upon  as  soon 
as  that  point  is  decided. 

13.  When  the  contestants  have  passed  upon  all  of  the  rings  of 
stock  they  shall  be  taken  to  convenient  quarters,  where  each  con- 
testant shall  be  called  before  each  committee  of  judges  to  give 
reasons  for  placing  each  ring.     The  contestants  will  be  required 
to  give  reasons  on  one  ring  only  at  each  hearing  before  the  re- 
spective committees.     The  contestants  shall  be  called  before  the 
committees  to  give  reasons  in  the  same  order  that  they  followed 
in  placing  the  rings  of  stock  in  the  arena. 


APPENDIX  557 

(6)  Time. 

1.  In  each  of  the  classes  eighteen  minutes  shall  be  allowed  the 
contestant  to  make  his  observations,  record  his  placing,  and  write 
such  memoranda  as  he  may  desire.  No  contestant  shall  hold  any 
paper,  card  or  device  that  will  assist  him  while  he  is  giving  his 
reasons  before  the  judges,  except  that  he  will  be  handed  the  card 
he  turned  in,  which  he  will  be  allowed  to  retain  while  giving  his 
reasons. 

Each  contestant  shall  appear  singly  before  the  judges  and  will 
be  allowed  two  minutes  to  give  reasons  for  his  placing  of  each 
ring  of  animals.  The  contestant  shall  write  his  placing  on  a  card 
and  hand  it  to  the  clerk  as  soon  as  he  has  finished  the  work  of 
placing  the  class. 

FOIIM  OF  CARD. 

Contestant's  number 


Class- 


Placing  : 

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 

Card  shall  be  four  inches  by  two  and  one-half  inches. 

(7)  The  Rings  of  Livestock — How  Selected. 

The  representatives  of  institutions  having  full  teams  of  students 
in  the  contest  shall  divide  themselves  into  committees,  at  a  meet- 
ing to  be  held  in  the  amphitheatre  on  the  morning  of  the  contest 
at  7 :  30  A.M.,  and  immediately  report  their  committee  lists  to  the 
Superintendent.  It  shall  be  the  duties  of  these  committees  to 
select  and  get  out  the  rings  of  stock  to  be  used  in  said  students* 
judging  contest.  It  shall  be  their  further  duty  to  specify  the 
description  of  the  ring  that  shall  be  given  to  the  students. 

The  representative  of  each  institution  having  a  team  entered 
shall  inform  these  committees  what  stock  on  the  exposition 
grounds  his  team  of  students  have  worked  upon. 


558  APPENDIX 

(8)  Classes  of  Livestock  and  Methods  of  Numbering, 

1.  Four  animals  shall  constitute  a  class. 

2.  The  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  shall  be  identified  by  placing  a 
card  on  the  animal.     These  cards  shall  be  lettered  A,  B,  C,  1). 

The  pigs  shall  be  numbered  by  sticking  large  gummed  labels 
bearing  the  letter  on  the  rump. 

3.  All  newspaper  men,  officials  and  others,  except  the  Superin- 
tendent, his  assistants,  the  judges,  policemen  and  holders  of  stock, 
shall  be  excluded  from  the  ring  while  the  contest  is  in  progress. 

The  program  to  be  followed  will  be  given  to  the  students  by  the 
Superintendent  in  charge,  on  the  morning  of  December  2nd. 

Full  instructions  will  be  given  the  students  in  the  arena  on  the 
morning  of  the  above  date. 

The  following  program  shall  be  followed,  beginning  Saturday, 
December  2,  1916  at  7 :  30  A.M. : 

7 :  30  A.M. — Superintendent  gives  instructions  to  students. 
9 :  20  A.M. — First  ring :  Horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine. 
9 :  40  A.M. — Second  ring :  Horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine. 
11 :  00  A.M. — Third  ring :  Horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine. 
12:20  P.M.— Luncheon. 

1 :  20  P.M. — Students  give  reasons  before  judging  committees. 
Each  student  will  be  allowed  six  minutes  for  giving  his  reasons 
for  the  three  rings  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  respectively, 
making-  a  total  of  twenty-four  minutes  for  reasons. 

RULES  FOR  BOYS'  STOCK  JUDGING  CONTESTS. 

1.  All  contestants  must  reside  within  the  county. 

2.  Contestants  are  limited  to  boys  and  girls  under  19  years  of 
a,ge  who  have  not  attended  a  State  Agricultural  College. 

3.  All  contestants  must  report  to  the  person  in  charge  not  later 
than  9 :  30  A.M.  on  the  day  of  the  contest. 

4.  Contestants  shall  fill  out  an  application  blank  furnished  by 
the  Secretary,  before  the  day  of  the  contest. 

5.  A  "team"  shall  consist  of  three  contestants  whose  names  have 
been  furnished  to  the  Secretary  on  one  card  before  the  day  of  the 
contest.     Membership  in  a  team  shall  in  no  way  hinder  the  con- 
testant from  competition  for  an  individual  prize  or  trip. 

6.  Each  contestant  shall  be  given  a  number  by  the  Secretary 
by  which  he  shall  be  known  during  the  contest. 


APPENDIX  559 

7.  Eacn  contestant  shall  be  required  to  place  ana  give  reasons 
i'or  placing  two  or  three  classes  of  stock  selected  from  the  fol- 
lowing list:  Draft  Horses,  Beef  Cattle,  Dairy  Cattle,  Mutton 
Sheep,  and  Lard  Hoys.  The  Association  holding  the  contest  shall 
determine  which  classes  of  stock  will  be  used. 

S.  Score  cards  may  be  used  in  training1  the  contestants  before- 
hand, but  no  score  cards  shall  be  used  in  the  contest. 

9.  Printed  forms  will  be  given   each  contestant  on  which  to 
make  written  reports  of  classes  judged,  and  any  contestant  writ- 
ing his  name  or  placing  any  other  identifying  mark  other  than  the 
number  assigned  to  him  on  his  written  report  will  be  excluded 
from  the  contest. 

10.  Each  contestant  shall  devote  his  time  strictly  to  the  judging 
of  the  stock  and  shall  not  refer  to   text-books  or  other   data; 
neither  shall  he  converse  with  any  other  persons  on  any  class  of 
stock  being  passed  upon  or  to  be  passed  upon. 

11.  The  length  of  time  allotted  to  each  ring  shall  be  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  person  in  charge.     In  grading,  60  per  cent  shall 
be  allotted  to  placing,  and  40  per  cent  to  reasons. 

The  association  holding  the  contest  shall  delegate  one  of  its 
numbers  to  assist  the  instructor  in  charge  and  to  arrange  for  the 
securing  and  getting  out  of  animals  for  the  different  classes. 


RULES  OF  STUDENTS'  CONTEST  IN  JUDGING 

DAIRY  CATTLE  AT  NATIONAL  DAIRY 

SHOW,  1916. 

ELIGIBILITY    OF    CONTESTANTS. 

Any  student  of  an  agricultural  college,  or  of  a  secondary  school 
under  direct  supervision  of  a  land-grant  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, who  is  regularly  matriculated  in  a  course  of  at  least  two 
years  in  agriculture  or  dairying  and  has  taken  not  less  than  twelve 
weeks'  undergraduate  work  during  the  calendar  year  in  which  the 
show  is  held,  who  has  never  taken  part  in  any  dairy  cattle  judging 
contest  of  a  national  or  international  character,  who  has  never 
acted  as  an  official  judge  of  cattle  at  a  fair  or  show,  and  who  has 
at  no  time  served  in  the  capacity  of  a  teacher  of  animal  husbandry 
or  dairy  husbandry  in  an  agricultural  college  or  secondary  school 
as  above  mentioned,  may  enter  as  a  member  of  a  team. 

SUPERINTENDENT. 

1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  superintendent  of  the  contest  to 
see  that  all  rules  and  regulations  governing  the  contest  are  duly 
carried  out,  and  that  the  contest  is  conducted  with  fairness  and 
justice  to  all  concerned.    He  shall  decide  all  questions  which  may 
arise  in  connection  with  the  interpretation  of  the  rules  governing 
the  contest. 

2.  He  shall  have  a  sufficient  number  of  clerks  and  assistants  to 
help  him  in  conducting  the  contest. 

3.  He  shall  direct  the  contestants  as  to  which  class  to  judge,  time 
to  commence  work,  and  time  to  stop. 

4.  After  instructing  the  contestants  in  a  body  regarding  the  con- 
test, the  form  in  which  to  prepare  their  reasons,  etc.,  he  shall  say 
nothing  to  any  contestant  as  to  the  method  for  the  contestant  to 
follow,  either  in  judging  the  class  or  in  writing  his  reasons. 

560 


APPENDIX  561 

5.  The  superintendent  shall  not  take  part  in  the  rating  of  the 
contestants. 

6.  He  shall  have  charge  of  all  records,  shall  have  all  ratings 
tabulated  and  totaled,  and  shall  deliver  the  results  of  the  contest 
to  the  general  manager  of  the  National  Dairy  Show  Association. 

7.  The  superintendent  shall  not  designate  the  animals  for  the 
first  class  until  after  the  assistants  have  taken  charge  of  the  con- 
testants; he  shall  do  this  not  more  than  thirty  minutes  before  the 
first  class  is  to  be  judged. 

CLERKS,    ASSISTANTS    AND    ATTENDANTS. 

1.  The  clerks,  assistants,  and  attendants  shall  be  at  the  command 
of  the  superintendent,  shall  carry  out  his  orders,  and  none  of  them 
shall  confer  with  the  contestants  unless  so  directed  by  the  super- 
intendent. 

2.  The  animals  shall  be  held  in  a  careful  manner,  so  that  all 
contestants  may  have  a  fair  chance  to  examine  them. 

3.  One  assistant  shall  have  charge  of  each  group  of  contestants, 
and  shall  see  to  it  that  each  contestant  in  his  group  remains  in  his 
presence  the  entire  time  the  contest  is  in  progress,  except  in  cases 
of  emergency,  and  then  as  directed  by  the  superintendent. 

4.  Clerks  shall  also  be  provided  for  the  judging  committee. 

JUDGES. 

1.  The  judging  committee  shall  consist  of  one  man  from  each 
institution  having  a  team  in  the  contest.  This  man  shall  be  either 
the  head  of  the  department  which  has  charge  of  instruction  in 
dairy-cattle  judging  in  the  institution  represented  or  the  assis- 
tant who  coached  the  team,  or  another  assistant  who  shall  be  desig- 
nated by  the  head  of  the  department;  provided,  however,  that  the 
last-named  assistant  shall  have  the  approval  of  the  majority  of 
the  members  of  the  committee.  If,  for  any  reason,  an  institution 
is  not  represented  on  the  judging  committee  as  above  provided 
for,  the  committte  shall  proceed  with  its  work  just  as  if  each  insti- 
tution having  a  team  in  the  contest  were  represented  on  the  judg- 
ing committee;  however,  a  team  from  an  institution  which  is  not 
represented  on  the  judging  committee  is  not  eligible  to  compete 
for  team  trophies  unless  good  and  sufficient  reasons  for  the  insti- 


562  APPENDIX 

tution  not  being  represented  have  been  given,  and  accepted  by  the 
superintendent  of  the  contest. 

2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  judging  committee  to  decide  the 
official  placing  of  each  ring  (four  bulls  and  four  cows)  after  the 
contestants  have  judged  the  ring.     The  judges  will  enter  their 
placing  on  cards  handed  them  when  they  enter  the  ring.     Each 
judge  will  also  receive  with  the  placing  card  a  memorandum  card, 
on  which  he  may  copy  the  official  placing  and  make  such  notes 
about  the  animals  as  he  wishes.     Fifteen  minutes  will  be  allowed 
the  judging,  committee  to  place  each  class  and  make  notes  on  the 
cards. 

Five  minutes  will  be  given  the  members  of  the  judging  com- 
mittee to  examine  the  animals,  record  which  animal  is  to  receive 
first  place,  and  sign  their  cards.  These  cards  shall  then  be  col- 
lected, and  the  clerk  shall  make  known  to  the  judging  committee 
which  animal  has  received  the  majority  number  of  votes.  This 
r.nimal  shall  be  accorded  first  place.  Four  minutes  shall  then  be 
allowed  the  committee  to  choose  the  animal  for  second  place  and 
hand  in  their  cards.  When  the  votes  are  counted  the  clerk  shall 
make  known  to  the  committee  the  animal  receiving  the  majority. 
Three  minutes  shall  be  allowed  the  committee  for  placing  the  third 
nnimal,  which  will  be  designated  by  the -clerk  after  the  votes  have 
been  counted.  The  remaining  animal  will  be  accorded,  fourth 
place. 

In  case  no  animal  receives  a  majority  on  the  first  Dallot,  a  second 
vote  shall  be  taken  on  the  two  highest  animals.  If  no  majority 
results,  the  superintendent  shall  by  lot  withdraw  the  name  of  one 
member  of  the  judging  committee,  who  shall  retire  from  the  com- 
mittee while  another  vote  is  taken.  In  cases  of  ties  not  provided 
for  in  these  rules,  the  superintendent  shall  designate  the  method 
of  breaking  the  tie.  Three  minutes  shall  be  allowed  the  judges 
for  recording  the  final  official  placement  on  the  memorandum 
cards  and  making  such  notes  on  them  as  they  desire,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  the  cards  will  be  taken  up  by  the  clerks. 

3.  During  the  contest  the  judges  may  converse  with  one  another, 
with  the  clerks,  and  the  superintendent  of  the  contest,  but  with 
no  one  else  until  their  work  is  completed;  but  they  shall  not  dis- 
cuss with  one  another  anything  pertaining  to  the  classes  of  animals 
used  in  the  contest  except  when  requested  by  the  superintendent, 
until  the  papers  containing  the'  reasons  have  been  rated. 


APPENDIX  563 

4.  After  a  class  has  been  officially  placed  by  the  judging  com- 
mittee, it  shall  be  decided  by  the  vote,  while  the  animals  are  still 
in  the  ring,  whether  there  is  a  pair  or  pairs  of  animals  in  that 
particular  class  sufficiently  close  to  warrant  the  penalizing  of  the 
student  less  than  fifteen  points  for  the  switching  of  the  pair  in 
question.     It  shall  further  be  decided  whether  there  is  a  pair  or 
pairs  of  animals  in  the  class  sufficiently  widely  separated  to  war- 
rant the  penalizing  of  the  student  more  than  15  points  for  each 
animal  incorrectly  placed. 

Two  animals  shall  be  considered  as  close  if  the  animal  second  in 
succession  received  more  than  one-half  as  many  votes  as  the  first 
for  the  higher  place.  The  two  animals  shall  be  considered  as  far 
apart  if  the  animal  second  in  succession  received  less  than  one- 
fifth  as  many  votes  as  the  first  for  the  higher  place. 

The  student  shall  be  cut  10  points  instead  of  15  for  switching  a 
close  pair;  however,  if  the  contestant  separates  the  close  pair  by 
a  third  animal  there  shall  be  no  reduction  in  the  amount  (15)  of 
the  cut. 

When  a  pair  of  animals  within  a  class  is  far  apart,  the  class 
becomes  divided  into  two  groups.  The  student  shall  be  cut  5  addi- 
tional points  for  each  lower-group  animal  that  he  places  in  the 
higher  group. 

5.  The  clerk  will  compare  the  placing  of  the  animals  on  each 
contestant's  card  with  the  official  placing  by  the  judges  as  deter- 
mined by  the  plan  above.    One  hundred  points  will  be  allowed  the 
contestant  on  placing  if  his  placing  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
official  placing;  and  for  each  place  that  each  animal  is  out  of  the 
way  fifteen  points  shall  be  deducted,  except  as  otherwise  provided 
for  in  paragraph  4.     Until  after  a  report  of  the  contest  is  made 
public  the  judges  shall  not  know  what  any  contestant  gets  on 
placing. 

The  following  scheme  illustrates  the  variation  in  placing.  The 
correct  order,  A,  B,  C,  D,  gives  100  points,  or  perfect  grade,  for 
placing: 


A  B  C  D  100 
A  B  D  C  85 
A  I)  B  C  70 
A  D  C  B  55 
A  C4  B  D  85 

B  A  C  D  85 
B  A  D  C  70 
B  C  A  D  70 
B  C  D  A  55 
B  D  A  C  55 

C  A  B  D  70 
C  A  D  B  55 
C  B  A  D  55 
C  B  D  A  40 
C  D  A  B  40 

D  A  B  C  55 
D  A  C  B  40 
D  B  A  C  40 
D  B  C  A  25 
D  C  A  I1,  25 

ACDB70    BDCA40    CDBA25    DCBA10 


564  APPENDIX 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  method  of  rating  when 
two  animals  are  close.  The  official  placing  is  A  B  C  D  and  A  and 
B  are  a  close  pair.  The  reversing  of  this  pair  by  a  contestant  is 
to  be  cut  only  10  points : 

Normal  Corrected 

Eating  Eating 

B     A     C     D 85  90 

C     B     A     D 55  60 

C     D     B     A 25  30 

B     C     A     D 70  70 

(B  and  C  are  separated  and  there  is  no  reduction  in  the  amount 
of  the  cut.) 

The  following  examples  illustrate  the  method  of  rating  when 
two  animals  are  far  apart : 

Normal       Corrected 
Eating          Eating 

A     B     C     D 100  100 

A     C     B     D 85  80 

A     D     B     C 70  65 

C     D     A     B 40  30 

(The  official  placing  is  A  B  C  D,  and  B  and  C  are  far  apart.) 

6.  The  judging  committee  shall,  under  the  superintendent's  di- 
rection, be  divided  into  four  groups,  each  group  to  hear  and  grade 
the  reasons  on  one  breed,  consisting  of  one  class  of  cows  and  one 
class  of  bulls,  for  all  contestants,  basing  their  rating  of  the  rea- 
sons on  the  final  official  placing  of  the  class  as  reached  by  the  entire 
committee. 

7.  The  judges'  memorandum  cards  for  a  class  shall  be  returned 
to  them  while  the  reasons  on  that  class  are  being  rated.    The  clerk 
shall  read  to  the  judges  the  reasons  of  each  contestant  without 
allowing  them  to  know  the  contestant's  number.     Each  judge  in 
each  group,  after  hearing  the  reasons  of  the  contestant,  and  with- 
out conferring  with  the  other  judges,  shall  write  down  on  a  card 
prepared  for  the  purpose  the  rating  assigned  by  him  to  the  con- 
testant and  sign  his  name.     These  cards  shall  then  be  passed  to 
the  clerk,  who  will  put  the  number  of  the  contestant  on  them  and 
ascertain  the  average  grade,  which  shall  be  the  grade  of  the  con- 
testant on  reasons.    One  hundred  points  shall  constitute  a  perfect 
grade  on  reasons. 


APPENDIX  565 

When  the  papers  of  a  class  of  animals  have  been  rated,  the 
judges  shall  return  their  memorandum  cards  to  the  clerk  and  he 
shall  deliver  them  to  the  superintendent,  who  shall  make  them  a 
part  of  the  permanent  records  of  the  contest. 

At  no  time  during  the  contest  shall  the  judges  have  access  to  the 
papers  on  which  the  contestants  give  their  reasons. 

All  papers  on  one  class  of  animals  shall  be  rated  and  the  judges' 
memorandum  cards  returned  to  the  clerk,  before  another  class  is 
taken  up. 

8.  Jn  case  of  a  tie  between  contestants,  either  individuals  or 
teams,  the  tie  shall  be  broken  by  finding  which  has  obtained  the 
highest  rating  on  judging  cows.     The  ratings  of  the  contestants 
otherwise  shall  remain  the  same. 

9.  The  clerk  shall  deliver  the   contestants'   cards,  the  judges' 
cards,  and  the  final  cards  to  the  superintendent  as  a  part  of  his 
report. 

CONTESTANTS. 

1.  All  entries  of  contestants  must  be  received  by  the  general 
manager  of  the  National  Dairy  Show  Association. 

2.  In  due  time  regular  entry  forms  will  be  mailed  to  the  pro- 
fessor of  dairying  or  animal  husbandry  of  each  State  Agricultural 
College. 

3.  An  entry  fee  of  $2  will  be  charged  each  contestant,  which 
must  be  forwarded  with  the  application.    The  money  received  from 
this  source  is  to  be  used  in  helping  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
contest. 

4.  Each  institution  eligible  to  participate  in  this  contest  will  be 
permitted  to  enter  a  team,  which  shall  consist  of  three  eligible 
students  of  that  institution. 

5.  Any  contestant  who  visits  the  cattle  barn  before  the  contest 
shall  be  debarred. 

6.  Each  contestant  shall  report  to  the  superintendent  of  the  con- 
test at  the  office  of  the  general  manager  at  8  A.M.  October  13, 
1916,  when  he  will  receive  a  number  and  such  instruction  as  the 
superintendent  may  deem  necessary. 

7.  No  contestant  shall  wear  any  uniform,  college  colors,  college 
hat,  college  pin,  or  anything  which  may  in  any  way  reveal  his 
identity  or  the  identity  of  the  college  which  he  represents. 


566  APPENDIX 

8.  No  student  shall  be  allowed  to  take  any  book,  notes,  or  writ- 
ing paper  into  the  contest  except  such  cards,  as  are  provided  by 
the  superintendent  of  the  contest. 

9.  While  the  contest  is  in  progress  there  shall  be  no  communi- 
cation among  the  contestants,  or  between  a  contestant  and  any  one 
else,  except  as  directed  by  the  superintendent  or  his  representative, 
and  then  only  in  the  presence  of  the  superintendent  or  his  repre- 
sentative. 

10.  Reporters,  officials,  and  others  except  the  contestants,  the 
judges,  the  superintendent,  his  assistants,  policemen,  and  holders 
of  stock,  shall  be  excluded  from  the  ring1  while  the  contest  is  in 
progress. 

11.  Any  contestant  violating  any  rule  will  be  debarred  from  the 
contest.     If  a  member  of  any  team  is  debarred  because  of  viola- 
tion of  rules,  that  team  will  be  debarred  from  the  team  contests, 
although   the   remaining   members   may   compete   for   individual 
prizes. 

12.  The  contestants  shall  be  divided  by  the  superintendent  into 
groups,  N.  0.  P.  Q.,  etc.,  and  each  contestant  shall  have  a  num- 
ber by  which  he  shall  be  designated  throughout  the  contest     In 
no  group  shall  there  be  more  than  one  contestant  from  the  same 
college. 

13.  When  the  first  two  classes  are  brought  into  the  ring,  group 
N  contestants  shall  examine  one  class,  and  each  contestant  shall 
designate  on  the  placing  card  how,  in  his  opinion,  the  animals 
should  rank.     Group  O  contestants  shall  in  like  manner  examine 
the  other  class.    Contestants  shall  be  notified  three  minutes  before 
the  time  is  up,  and  when  final  time  is  called,  the  placing  cards  shall 
be  collected  by  the  assistant  in  charge  of  each  group.     Groups  N 
and  O  will  then  exchange  places  in  the  judging  ring  and  place 
the  remaining  class.    Groups  N  and  0  shall  then  hand  their  placing 
cards  to  the  assistants  and  be  conducted  to  the  examining  room, 
where  they  shall  write  down  their  reasons  for  the  placing  of  the 
animals.    Groups  P  and  Q  shall  then  examine  the  animals  and  pro- 
ceed as  groups  N  and  0 ;  and  any  other  groups  in  like  manner. 

14.  Each  contestant  on  entering  the  ring  will  receive  two  cards, 
one  a  blank  form  for  the  placing  of  the  animals,  the  other  a  blank 
card  for  notes.     The  placing  card  will  be  handed  to  the  attendant 
before  leaving  the  ring.     In  the  examining  room  a  blank  form 
will  be  provided   on  which  to  write  the  reasons  for  the  placing  of 


APPENDIX  567 

the  animals.    This,  together  with  the  student's  card  for  notes,  will 
be  collected  before  the  student  leaves  the  examining  room. 

TIME. 

1.  Fifteen  minutes  for  each  class  shall  be  allowed  the  contestants 
in  the  ring  to  make  their  observations,  write  down  their  placings, 
and  make  such  notes  as  they  wish  to  assist  them  in  remembering 
the  class  when  they  go  to  the  examining  room. 

2.  When  the  contestants  enter  the  ring,  the  animals  shall  be 
moved  around  for  two  minutes  so  as  to  enable  the  contestants  to 
see  them  in  motion. 

3.  Each  contestant  shall  be  allowed   fifteen  minutes  to  write 
down  his  reasons  for  placing  each  class  of  animals. 

CLASSES    OF    ANIMALS. 

1.  Four  animals  shall  constitute  a  class.     In  each  breed  there 
shall  be  one  class  of  bulls  and  one  of  cows. 

2.  The  cattle  shall  be  known  by  cards   (A.  B,  C,  D)   on  the 
animals'  attendants. 

AGE  CLASSIFICATION  IN  THE  SHOW  RING. 

The  classification  of  animals  in  the  show  ring  on  the  basis  of 
age,  is  a  well  established  necessity.  Animals  subjected  to  compara- 
tive placing  should  not  vary  too  widely  in  age,  especially  when  of 
immature  form.  As  a  matter  of  common  custom,  an  animal  is 
termed  a  yearling  from  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  to  the  end 
of  the  twenty-fourth  month.  Yet  if  we  were  to  compare  year- 
lings born  on  January  2d  and  December  28th,  of  the  same  year, 
we  should  quite  likely  find  the  older  animal  much  the  larger  and 
more  mature.  In  the  endeavor  to  establish  uniformity  in  size  and 
age  in  cases  of  this  sort,  dates  have  been  adopted  for  basing  the 
age  classification  of  the  younger  classes  of  animals.  A  form  of 
classification  is  expressed  in  the  following  illustrations  as  applied 
V)  a  fall  show  of  cattle. 

Senior  calf,  calved  on  or  after  September  1st,  shown  the  follow- 
ing year. 

Junior  calf,  calved  on  or  after  January  1st,  shown  the  same  year. 

Senior  yearling,  a  year  older  than  the  senior  calf. 

Junior  yearling,  a  year  older  than  the  junior  calf. 

Two-year  olds  and  under  three,  dating  from  September  1st. 

Three-year  old  and  under  four,  dating  from  September  1st. 

Four  years  old  or  older  are  assumed  to  be  mature  animals,  and 
comparable  irrespective  of  age  date. 


568 


APPENDI:: 


If  a  calf  is  dropped  on  September  10,  1916,  and  is  to  be  shown 
at  the  1917  International  Live  Stock  Exposition,  he  must  be 
entered  as  a  senior.  If  dropped  on  February  10th,  he  must  be 
entered  as  a  Junior.  This  arrangement  provides  for  two  groups 
of  animals  of  the  calf  class,  where  the  conditions  of  size  and  age 
will  be  fair  for  comparison  in  each  class.  At  many  fairs  ages  of 
horses  and  foals  date  from  January  1st. 

A  classification  after  the  above  form  may  apply  to  either  horses, 
cattle,  sheep  or  swine.  Variations  occur  in  classifications,  accord- 
ing to  local  conditions,  but  the  present  day  live  stock  show  re- 
quires exhibitors  to  enter  all  live  stock  exhibits  on  an  age  basis. 
The  following  are  examples  taken  from  a  prominent  state  fair 
premium  list,  showing  age  classes  provided  for  horses,  cattle, 
sheep  and  swine. 

Stallion  4  years  old  or  over. 
Stallion  3  years  old  and  under  4. 
Stallion  2  years  old  and  under  3. 
Stallion  1  year  old  and  under  2. 
Horses  J    ^tallion  c°lt  under  1  year. 

Mare  4  years  old  or  over. 
Mare  3  years  old  and  under  4. 
Mare  2  years  old  and  under  3. 
Mare  1  year  old  and  under  2. 
Filly  colt  under  1  year  old. 

Bull  3  years  old  or  over. 

Bull  2  years  old  and  under  3. 

Senior  yearling  bull. 

Junior  yearling  bull. 

Senior  bull  calf. 

Junior  bull  calf. 

Cow  3  years  old  or  over. 

Cow  or  heifer  2  years  old  and  under  3. 

Senior  yearling  heifer. 

Junior  yearling  heifer. 

Senior  heifer  calf. 

Junior  heifer  calf. 


Cattle 


Sheep . 


Earn  2  years  old  or  over. 
Earn  1  year  old  and  under  2. 
Earn  under  1  year  old. 
Ewe  2  years  old  or  over. 
Ewe  1  year  old  and  under  2. 
Ewe  under  1  year  old. 


APPENDIX  569 

f  Boar  2  years  old  or  over. 

Boar  18  months  old  and  under  24  months. 
I  Hoar  12  months  old  and  under  18  months. 
•  I'.oar  6  months  old  and  under  12  months. 

_    .  Boar  under  6  months  old. 

Swine s    c 

Sow  2  years  old  or  over. 

Sow  18  months  old  and  under  24  months. 
Sow  12  months  old  and  under  18  months. 
Sow  6  months  old  and  under  12  months. 
Sow  under  6  months. 

CLASSES  AND  GROUPS  OF  ANIMALS  IN  THE 
SHOW  RING. 

Animals  are  ordinarily  exhibited  at  live  stock  shows  or  fairs, 
under  the  heading  of  the  breed  or  breeds  to  which  they  belong. 
At  many  local  fairs  of  minor  importance  little  emphasis  is  placed 
on  the  breed,  and  grades  are  allowed  places  in  the  classes.  In  the 
better  shows,  grades  are  exhibited  only  in  non-breeding  classes  as 
for  example,  geldings,  steers,  barrows,  or  wethers. 

The  classes  in  the  show  ring  are  the  groups  that  are  arranged 
and  exhibited  on  an  age  basis.  In  our  shows  it  is  the  common 
custom  first  to  make  the  awards  in  the  classes,  usually  beginning 
with  the  aged  males,  and  judging  in  order  from  the  oldest  to 
youngest  class  of  each  sex.  An  arrangement  of  the  classes  has 
already  been  given  under  age  requirements. 

The  herds  or  groups  of  the  show  ring,  consist  of  collections  of 
animals  shown  as  such,  rather  than  as  single  individuals.  There 
are  various  groups  based  on  different  requirements.  The  more 
common  are  the  following : 

Exhibitors'  herd. — One  bull,  2  years  old  or  over;  one  cow,  3  years 
old  or  over;  one  heifer,  2  years  old  and  under  3;  one  heifer,  1 
year  old  and  under  2;  one  heifer,  under  one  year,  all  owned 
by  the  exhibitor.  This  is  often  termed  a  "step-ladder"  herd. 

Breeder's  young  herd. — One  bull,  under  2  years  old;  two  heifers,  1 
year  and  under  2;  two  heifers,  under  1  year  old,  and  all  ex- 
cepting the  bull  to  be  bred  by  the  exhibitor. 

Calf  herd. — One  bull  and  two  heifers,  all  under  one  year  old  and 
bred  by  the  exhibitor. 

Get  of  sire. — Four  animals  of  any  age  or  sex,  the  get  of  one  sire. 

Produce  of  dam. — Two  animals  of  any  age  or  sex,  the  produce  of 
one  cow. 


INDEX 

Page 

Pago 

A 

Arrangement  of  the  scale  of 

points,  systematic  

17 

A  type,  judging  Merino,  Ameri- 

Astragalus  horse  

38 

can  or  Class  

412 

Attitudes   hind   leg   horse,   cor- 

Merino of  Class  374. 

413 

rect  

105 

Aberdeen-Angus  cattle  

269 

Ayrshire  bull,  scale  points.  .  .  . 

340 

Action  draft  horse  

106 

cattle    

338 

heavy  harness  horse  

154 

cow,  scale  points  

341 

light  harness  horse  

14.", 

of  jack  

181 

of  mule.  

192 

B 

of  saddle  horse  

164 

Age    classification,    animals    in 

Back  bacon  hog  

r>37 

show  ring  

567 

beef  animal  

245 

of  ox,  indication  of  

21:5 

dairy  cow  

288 

of  ox,  teeth  as  indication  .  . 

214 

draft  horse  

91 

of  sheep  

363 

lard  hog  

499 

of  swine,  determining 

474 

mutton  sheep 

.",!»<•> 

of  the  horse  

31 

Bacon  hog,  back  

537 

American  Merino  

461 

belly   

540 

saddle  horse  

167 

body  

537 

Anatomy  of  hog  

473 

breast  

537 

of  the  horse  

28 

chest    

539 

of  ox  

209 

condition    

535 

of  sheep  

361 

ears   

536 

Andalusian  jack  

182 

ey&s   

536 

Angora  goat  

463 

face   

536 

characteristics    

463 

forelegs  

537 

fleece  of  

464 

forequarters   

537 

scale  of  points  " 

465 

form   

534 

Angus  cattle,  Aberdeen  

269 

general  appearance  

533 

Ankle,  cocked  

206 

hams    

540 

Animal,    circulatory    system    of 

head  and  neck  

535 

the   

296 

hindquarters    

540 

final  purpose  of  beef  

218 

hips   

540 

quality  in  beef  

231 

jowl   

536 

size  and  weight  of  beef.  .  . 

229 

loin  

538 

Animals    have    serious   defects, 

neck    

536 

some  

10 

quality    

534 

Appearance  bacon  hog,  general 

533 

ribs  

539 

beef  animal,  general  

229 

rump   

540 

draft  horse,  general  

65 

shoulders   

537 

heavy  harness   horse,  gen- 

sides   

539 

eral    

151 

snout  

536 

jack,  general  

176 

style  and  action  

535 

of  fat  wether,  general.  .  .  . 

381 

weight  

534 

Arch,  pelvic  

291 

Bacon  type  breeds  of  swine, 

Arm  draft  horse  

77 

notes  on  

548 

Arms  and  forearms  light  har- 

hog, scale  points  

532 

ness  horse  

IC7 

swine,   judging  

531 

571 

. 

572 


INDEX 


Page 
Balance  of  form,  beauty  and..         4 

Base   narrow 89 

wide   89 

Beat,  the 51 

Beauty  and  balance  of  form.  .  .        4 

Beef  animal,  back 245 

breast   242 

brisket 242 

body 245 

cheeks      239 

chest    245 

crops   °45 

ears 239 

eyes 238 

face  of 239 

final  purpose  of 218 

flanks     249 

forehead    239 

forequarters 241 

front  legs 244 

general   appearance 229 

general  form 230 

hair 232 

head  of 238 

hide 231 

hindquarters   249 

hips 249 

loin    247 

method  in  judging  the.  .  .  .    227 

muzzle    238 

quality  in 231 

ribs    247 

size  and  weight 229 

shoulder    241 

tail-head   251 

thigh   251 

withers    241 

Beef   breeds,   descriptive   notes 

more  important 265 

Beef  bull,  breed  characteristics  262 

constitutional  vigor 261 

sex  character  in 259 

Beef  bulls,  judging 259 

Beef,  carcass 221 

and  its  cuts 218 

finish   226 

form  of 225 

quality    226 

thickness    225 

Beef  cattle,  comparative  study  253 

neck 240 

for  breeding,  judging 259 

handling   236 

in  ring,  reasons  for  placing  256 
or  steer,  score  card  for.  .  .    228 

rump    250 

scale  of  points  for 228 

chuck,  piece  of 224 


Page 
Beef  cattle,  cow,  sex  character.   262 

size    263 

udder    262 

dressed  carcass  of 220 

flank  piece  of 225 

grading  the  carcass  of.  ...    225 

loin  of 222 

plate  piece  of 225 

rib  piece 223 

round  of 223 

shank  piece  of 225 

tenderloin 222 

type  of  cattle  by  scale  of 

points,  judging 227 

Belgian  horse 125 

Belly  bacon  hog 540 

lard  hog 501 

Belted  cattle,  Dutch 343 

Berkshire  swine 511 

scale  of  points 513 

Blade  of  the  horse,  shoulder.  .  .      36 

Blind  spavin 200 

Blood  as  factor  in  milk  produc- 
tion       295 

Boar,  breed  characteristics. . . .    544 

frame  of 544 

sex  character 542 

size  of 544 

temperament  of 543 

Body  bacon  hog 537 

beef  animal 245 

Class  C  Merino 424 

conformation    of   the   stal- 
lion      119 

dairy  cow 287 

draft  horse 89 

heavy  harness  horse 152 

lard  hog 499 

light  harness  horse 139 

of  jack 180 

mutton  sheep 396 

saddle  horse 163 

Bog  spavin 201 

Bone  dairy  animal 281 

of  hog,  character 491 

spavin    200 

Bones  of  man  and  horse,  re- 
semblances between 38,  39 

Bow -kneed  89 

Bow-legged 89 

Boys'  stock  judging  contests, 

rules  for 558 

Breast  bacon  hog 537 

beef  animal 242 

bone  of  the  horse,  sternum 

or 36 

lard  hog 497 


INDEX 


573 


Page 

Breed  character  ram 436 

characteristics  beef  bull .  .    262 

boar 544 

of  ewe 438 

sow 547 

on  carcass,  influence  of .  .  .   221 

standards    18 

types  or  fashions,  the  well- 
informed  judge  will  be 
familiar  with  changes  in  8 

"Breeders'  young  herd 569 

Breeding  capacity  of  ewe 437 

ram   435 

draft  horses,  judging 118 

sheep,  judging 433 

swine,  judging 542 

judging  beef  cattle  for 259 

Merino  sheep,  modern  trend  420 
Breeds  cattle,  descriptive  notes 

on  dual-purpose 355 

conditions  o  f  disqualifica- 
tion of  representatives  of 

certain   18 

descriptive  notes  more  im- 
portant beef 265 

of  draft  horses 123 

of  sheep,  descriptive  notes 

of  more  important 439 

of  swine,  notes  on  bacon 

type 548 

of  swine,  notes  on  lard 

type 511 

Brisket  beef  animal 242 

mutton   sheep 394 

Brown  Swiss  cattle 348 

B  type  Merino 418 

Bull,  Breed  characteristics  beef  262 
constitutional  vigor  beef. .   261 

form  dairy 319 

scale  points  Guernsey 336 

scale  points  Jersey 326 

scale  points  Holstein-Frie- 

sian   330 

sex  character  in  beef 259 

size  beef 261 

size  dairy 319 

temperament  dairy  type. . .   317 

veins  on    319 

vigor  in  dairy 319 

Bulls  and  young  cattle,  judging 

dairy  type 317 

dairy  type 317 

judging  beef 259 

Buttock  horse 37 


Page 


Calf  herd 569 

knee    78 

Calf-kneed   89 

Canadian  cattle,  French 347 

Cannon  of  horse 79 

horse,  hind 102 

Cannons  of  light  harness  horse  137 

Canter 57 

Capacity  of  ewe,  breeding 437 

Capped  hock 206 

Carcass  and  its  cuts,  beef 218 

mutton    375 

pork 479 

beef 221 

beef,  dressed 220 

beef,  grading  the 225 

cuts,   relative  values  of 

mutton  and  lamb 378 

finish  beef 226 

form  of  beef 225 

head  hog 483 

hog,  dressed 479 

influence  of  breed  on 221 

mutton,  method  of  cutting 

up 375 

parts  of  pork 480 

quality  beef 226 

shoulder  of  hog 483 

thickness  beef 225 

to  live  weight  in  fat  cattle, 

per  cent 220 

wholesale  cuts  pork 480 

Card  American  Merino,  score.  .   415 

and  its  use,  score 15 

for  beef  cattle  or  steer, 

score   228 

dairy  cattle  comparison .  .  .    314 

for  dairy  cow,  score 275 

draft  horse  comparison . . .   113 

fat  sheep  comparison 407 

fat  sheep  or  wether,  score  382 
heavy  harness  horses,  score  149 
jack,  Catalonian  or  Ameri- 
can type,  score 175 

method  of  using  the  score.      18 

mule,  score 188 

saddle  horse,  score 160 

swine,  comparative  placing  509 

Catalonian  jack 182 

or  American  type,  score 

card  jack 175 

Catch  and  hold  sheep  properly 

for  examination -   369 


574 


INDEX 


Page 

Cattle,  Aberdeen- Angus 269 

Ayrshire 338 

Brown  Swiss 348 

by  scale  of  points,  judging 

beef  type  of 227 

by  scale  of  points,  judging 

dairy  type 272 

classification  of  domestic.  216 
comparative  study  beef.  .  253 
comparative  study  dairy.  313 
descriptive  notes  on  dual 

purpose  breeds  of 355 

Devon 357 

dewlap  on 244 

Dexter 346 

dual-purpose    350 

Dutch  Belted 343 

for  breeding,  judging  beef.    259 

French  Canadian 347 

Galloway    270 

Guernsey    334 

hair,  dairy 281 

handling  beef 236 

Hereford 266 

Holstein-Friesian    328 

hooks  of 249 

horns 240 

Jersey   323 

judging    209 

judging  dairy  type  bulls 

and  young 317 

judging  dual-purpose 350 

Kerry   344 

per    cent,    carcass    to   live 

weight  in  fat 220 

Polled  Durham 266 

Red  Polled 355 

scale  of  points  Devon 359 

Hereford 268 

Red  Polled 356 

dual-purpose 353 

Shorthorn 265 

sub-types  of 217 

type,  Importance  dairy.  .  .  272 
center  of  gravity  in  horse .  48 

character  boar,  sex 542 

in  sow,  sex 545 

ewe,  sex 436 

mare,  sex 121 

ram,  sex 433 

saddle  horses,  type  and.  .  .  160 
stallion,  sex 118 

Characteristics  American  M  e  - 

rino,  distinctive 414 

Cheeks,  beef  animal 239 

Chemical  character  of  meat, 

physical  and 218 


Page 

Cheshire  swine 524 

scale  points 525 

Chest  bacon  hog 539 

beef  animal 245 

dairy  cow 287 

draft  horse 90 

lard  hog 499 

mutton   sheep 396 

white  swine 518 

scale  points 519 

Cheviot  sheep 448 

scale  points 450 

Chine 288 

Circulatory   system  of  the  ani- 
mal       296 

Chuck  piece  of  beef 224 

Classes  and  groups  of  animals 

in  show  ring 569 

horses,  types  and 61 

mules  market 192 

livestock,  numbering 558 

Classification  animals  in   show 

ring,  age 567 

Merino  sheep  according  to 

type 412 

of  domestic  cattle 216 

sheep 374 

Clerks,    assistants    and    atten- 
dants student  contests.  .    554 

Clydesdale  horse 126 

Coach  horse,  French 158 

German    159 

Cob  horse 15(J 

Cocked  ankle 206 

Color  and  markings  Milch  goats  470 

skin  hog 491 

Colt  teeth 31 

Column,  spinal 33 

Community,  competent  livestock 

critics  or  judges  in  a.  .      13 
Comparison  card,  dairy  cattle.  .    314 

draft  horse 113 

Comparative  placings  of  mutton 

sheep,  reasons  for 408 

study  beef  cattle 253 

dairy  cattle 313 

draft  horses 110 

mutton  sheep 404 

swine    507 

Complexus  muscle  horse 42 

Condition  bacon  hog 535 

lard  hog 492 

Milch  goat,  quality  and.  .  .    469 

mutton  sheep 390 

wool 431 

wool-mutton  sheep 403 

the   term 234 


INDEX 


575 


Page 

Conformation  feeder  sheep.  .  .  .    410 

mare 122 

mule   189 

stallion,  body 119 

Contest,   National   Dairy   Show 

Students'   Judging 5(50 

Contests,  rules  for  boys'  stock 

judging    558 

rules    governing    livestock 
judging   553 

Contestants  in  students'  c  o  n  - 

tests,   rules  governing.  .    555 
rules  governing  eligibility.    553 

Constitutional  vigor  beef  bull.    261 

Cotswold  sheep 456 

scale  points 457 

Cow,  back  dairy 288 

body  dairy 287 

chest  dairy 287 

ears  dairy 284 

evolution  dairy 272 

eyes    dairy 284 

face  dairy 284 

flanks  dairy 289 

forehead  dairy 284 

forequarters  dairy 285 

form  or  type  dairy 277 

function  dairy 274 

general  appearance  dairy.    276 

head  and  neck  dairy 283 

head  beef 262 

hind  legs  dairy 294 

hindquarters  dairy 290 

hips  dairy 291 

hocked    295 

horns  dairy  cow 285 

legs  dairy 287 

loin  dairy 288 

mammary  development  of.    295 
method  in  judging  dairy.  .   274 

muzzle   dairy 284 

neck  beef 262 

neck  dairy 285 

quality  in  dairy 280 

ribs  dairy 289 

rump    dairy 291 

scale  points  Ayrshire  cow.    341 

dairy   275 

Guernsey 337 

Jersey    327 

score  card  for  dairy 275 

sex  character  beef 262 

shoulders  dairy 286 

size  beef 263 

tail  dairy 293 

temperament  dairy 282 

thighs,   dairy 294 


Page 

Cow,  udder  beef LM;I> 

weight  or  sixe  dairy li7<» 

withers  dairy 2st; 

C  Merino,  body  class 424 

forequarters  class 423 

general  appearance  class.  .  422 

head  and  neck  class 422 

hindquarters  class 424 

C  type  Merino,   score  card  for 

Delaine  or    421 

Creases  in  hog 490 

Crimp  of  wool 427 

Critics  or  judges  in  a  commun- 
ity, competent  livestock.  13 

Crops  beef  animal 245 

Croup  draft  horse 95 

saddle  horse 163 

Curb   202 

Cuts,  beef  carcass  and  its 218 

grading  pork 480 

mutton  carcass  and  its.  ...  375 

pork  carcass  and  its 479 

wholesale 480 

relative   amounts   and 

values  pork 483 

Cutting  up   carcass  of  mutton, 

method  of .  .                      .  375 


Dairy  animal,  bone 281 

Disposition 283 

secretions   280 

bull,  form 319 

size 319 

cattle,  comparative  study.    313 

comparison   card 314 

hair   281 

judging  young 319 

type,  importance 272 

cow,  back 288 

body    287 

chest 287 

ears 284 

evolution 272 

eyes 284 

face   284 

flanks   289 

forehead 284 

forequarters   285 

form  or  type 277 

function    274 

general  appearance 276 

head  and  neck 283 

hind  legs 294 

hindquarters     290 


576 


INDEX 


Page 

Dairy  animal,  hips 291 

horns 285 

legs 287 

loin    288 

method  in  judging 274 

neck    285 

quality  in 280 

ribs 289 

rump    291 

scale  points 275 

score  card  for 275 

shoulders   286 

tail 293 

temperament    282 

thighs 294 

weight  or  size 276 

withers 286 

Show   Students'   Judging 

Contest,  National 560 

temperament 282 

type  bulls 317 

type  of  cattle  by  scale  of 

points,  judging 272 

Dam,  produce  of 569 

Defects  in  the  horse,  unsound- 
ness,  diseases  and 196 

some  animals  have  serious .      10 

Delaine  Merino 374,  461 

scale  points 421 

Density  of  fleece 428 

Decision  of  the  judge 11 

Description  of  show  jack 181 

Devon    cattle 357 

scale  points 359 

Dewlap  on  cattle 244 

Dexter  cattle 346 

scale  points 347 

Digestion,  process  of 295 

Digestive  organs  sheep 365 

system  horse 43 

Diseases   and   defects   in    the 

horse,  unsoundness 196 

Disposition  dairy  animal 283 

horse   47 

Disqualification   o  f  representa- 
tives  of   certain   breeds, 

conditions  of 18 

Domestic  sheep,  classification  of  374 

Dorset  Horn  sheep 447 

scale    points 448 

Drafter,  walk  of 106 

Draft  horse,  action 106 

arm 77 

back 91 

body    89 

chest 90 

comparison  card 113 


Page 

Draft  horse,  croup 95 

form  of 67 

gaskin    98 

general  appearance 65 

head   71 

height    65 

hind  pastern 103 

hips   94 

hock    99 

loin 91 

muzzle    71 

neck 74 

score  card  for 62 

shoulders   76 

temperament   70 

thigh    98 

trot    108 

weight   66 

withers    89 

Draft  horses,  breeds  of 123 

comparative  study  of 110 

first  step  in  judging  group 

of Ill 

Judging  breeding 118 

mules    194 

or  power  type  of  horse  by 

scale  of  points,  judging.  61 
Dual-purpose   breeds   cattle, 

descriptive  notes  on ....  355 

cattle 350 

judging   350 

scale  points 353 

idea   350 

type 352 

Durham  cattle,  Polled 266 

Duroc-Jersey  swine 521 

scale  points 522 

Dutch  Belted  cattle 343 

scale  of  points 344 


Ears  bacon  hog 536 

beef  animal 239 

dairy   cow 284 

horse 73 

lard  hog 495 

sheep 392 

Escutcheon   theory 311 

Evolution  dairy  cow 272 

Ewe,  breed  characteristics  of.  .  438 

breeding  capacity  of 437 

form   of 438 

judging 436 

sex  character  of 436 

size  of...                              .  437 


INDEX 


577 


Page 

Examination   of  sheep  to  be 

scored,  systematic 380 

Examine  sheep,  how  to  handle 

and   369 

Exhibitors'  herd 569 

Expert  judges  of  livestock,  de- 

•    mand  for 13 

Exposition,  students'  livestock 
judging  contest  Interna- 
tional    553 

Eyes  bacon  hog 536 

beef  animal 238 

dairy  cow 284 

lard  hog 495 

of  horse 71 

of  sheep 392 

Eyesight,  defective 207 


Pace  bacon  hog 

beef  animal 

dairy  cow 

lard  hog 

sheep  

Farm  mules 

Fashions,  the  well  -  informed 
judge  will  be  familiar 
with  changes  in  breed 

types  or 

Fat  sheep  comparison  card.  .  .  . 

or  wether,  score  card  for. 

weight 

wether,  general  appearance 

Feeder   cattle,   judging   stocker 

or    

sheep,  conformation 

judging  

Feet  of  horse 

hind 

position  front  legs  and.  .  . 

Femur  horse 

Fetlock  horse 

hind  

Fiber,  quality  wool 

Fibula  horse 

Figures  in  scoring  animals,  use 

of  

Fine  wool 

Finish  beef  carcass 

Fistula  

Flank  piece  of  beef 

Flanks  beef  animal 

dairy    cow 

horse  

lard  hog 

mutton  sheep 


536 
239 
284 
494 
392 
195 


407 
382 
383 
381 

257 

410 

410 

83 

103 

87 

37 

81 

103 

426 

38 

22 
374 
226 
206 
225 
249 
289 

94 
502 
397 


Page 

Fleece,    the 426 

and  its  examination 426 

Angora    464 

'density  of 428 

examination   of 431 

on  sheep 371 

or  staple,  length  of 429 

or  wool  of  sheep 366 

Folds  on  American  Merino.  .  .  .   417 

Forearm    horse 77 

Forearms  light   harness   horse, 

arms  and 137 

Forehand  of  jack 179 

Forehead  beef  animal 239 

dairy  cow 284 

horse   72 

sheep   392 

Forelegs  bacon  hog 537 

Forequarters  bacon  hog 537 

beef  animal 241 

Class  C  Merino 423 

dairy    cow 285 

lard  hog 496 

mutton  sheep 394 

Form  and  function,  study  of .  .        1 
the   efficient  judge  is  a 

student  of  animal 7 

bacon   hog 534 

beauty  and  balance  of. ...        4 

beef  animal,  general 230 

beef    carcass 225 

dairy  bull 319 

draft  horse 67 

ewe   438 

heavy  harness  horse 152 

jack   178 

lard  hog 489 

light  harness  horse 133 

mule   190 

mutton   sheep 384 

or  type  dairy  cow 277 

ram    435 

to  use  in  the  animal,  rela- 
tionship of 1 

udder 300 

Foot  glands  of  sheep 367 

light  harness  horse 139 

Foul    foot 210 

Founder  or  laminitis 205 

Fox  trot 59 

Frame  of  boar 544 

brood  sow 547 

French  Canadian  cattle 347 

coach   horse 158 

Front  legs  beef  animal 244 


578 


INDEX 


Page 

Function,  the  efficient  judge  is 
a   student   of  animal   form 

and   7 

study  of  form  and 1 


Gaited  saddle  horse,  three 166 

Gaits  of  the  horse 53 

Gallop   57 

Galloway  cattle. 270 

Gammons 540 

Gare,  kemp  or 428 

Gaskin  draft  horse 98 

German  coach  horse 159 

Glands  of  sheep,  foot 367 

Goat,   Angora 463 

characteristics   Angora ....  463 

color  and  markings  Milch.  470 

Milch 466 

milking  qualities  of 466 

quality  and  condition  Milch  469 

Saanen   471 

size  and  shape  Milch 468 

Toggenburg    471 

judging   Milch 466 

Group  of  draft  horses,  first  step 

in  judging Ill 

Groups  of  animals  in  show  ring, 

classes  and 569 

Guenon    311 

Guernsey  bull,  scale  points 336 

cattle 334 

cow,   scale  points 337 


H 


Hackney  horse 157 

pony 172 

Hair  beef  animal 232 

dairy   cattle 281 

hog   477 

lard  hog 490 

Hampshire    sheep 445 

scale  points  of 446 

swine 525 

scale  points 527 

Hams    482 

bacon   hog 540 

lard  hog 543 

Handle  and  examine  sheo;).  Low 

to 369 

Handling,  subject  of 236 

Hands  in  judging  sheep,  use  of  370 

Harness  type,  judging  horses  of 

light ...    130 


Pag« 

Head  and  neck  bacon  hog 535 

and  neck  Class  C  Merino.  422 

dairy  cow 283 

mutton  sheep 391 

beef  cow 262 

draft  horse 71 

lard  hog *  494 

light  harness  horse 134 

of  beef  animal 238 

hog  carcass 483 

jack  179 

mule  191 

Heart  horse 44 

ox  211 

Heaves 199 

Heavy  harness  horse,  action..  154 

body  152 

form  152 

general  appearance 151 

hindquarters  153 

neck 152 

quality  152 

score  card  for 149 

shoulders  152 

temperament  .  .  . 152 

type,  judging  horses 14S 

Height  jack 177 

draft  horse 05 

light  harness  horse 131 

mule 190 

Herd,  breeders'  young 569 

calf 569 

exhibitors'  569 

Hereford  cattle 266 

scale  points 268 

Hide  beef  animal 231 

Hind  cannons  horse 102 

feet  horse 103 

fetlock  horse 103 

pastern  draft  horse 103 

Hindquarters  bacon  hog 540 

beef  animal 249 

Class  C  Merino 424 

dairy  cow 290 

heavy  harness  horse 153 

horse 94 

jack  180 

lard  hog 502 

light  harness  horse 141 

mule  191 

mutton  sheep 398 

Hips  bacon  hog 540 

beef  animal 249 

dairy  cow 291 

draft  horse 94 

mutton  sheep 398 


INDEX 


579 


Page 

Hock,  capped 206 

dra  ft    horse 99 

point    of 38 

Hocked  cow 295 

Hog,  anatomy  of 473 

back  bacon 537 

bark   lard 499 

belly  bacon .    540 

lard    501 

body  bacon 537 

lard  499 

breast  bacon 537 

lard    497 

carcass,  head 483 

shoulder    of 483 

character  bone  of 491 

chest  bacon 539 

lard   499 

color  skin 491 

condition  bacon 535 

lard    492 

creases  in 490 

dressed  carcass  of 479 

ears  bacon 536 

lard   495 

eyes  bacon 536 

lard  495 

face  bacon 536 

lard    494 

Hanks  lard 502 

forelegs  bacon 537 

lard   497 

forequarters  baron 537 

lard    496 

form  bacon 534 

lard   489 

general  appearance 487 

bacon 533 

hair  of 477 

lard   490 

hams  bacon 540 

lard    503 

head  and  neck  bacon 535 

lard  494 

hindquarters  bacon 540 

lard   502 

hind  legs  lard 504 

hips  bacon 540 

intestines  of 476 

jowl    bacon 536 

lard    495 

liver  of 476 

loin    bacon 538 

lard   500 

neck   lard 496 

pasterns    498 

points  of 487 

quality  bacon 534 


Page 

Hog,  lard 490 

ribs  bacon :,:;:» 

rump  bacon r>4(> 

lard   502 

shields 491 

shoulders  bacon 537 

lard   496 

sides  bacon 539 

lard   501 

skeleton  of ' 473 

skin  of 477 

lard   490 

snout  bacon 536 

stomach  of 476 

style  and  action  baron.  .  .  .    535 

teeth  of 474 

toes    498 

weight  bacon 534 

lard   487 

in  ring,  reasons  for  placing  509 
Hold  sheep  properly  for  exam- 
ination, to  catch  and.  . .   369 
Holstein-Friesian    bull,    scale 

points S30 

cattle    328 

cow,  scale  points 332 

Hoof  of  horse 36 

Hooks  of  cattle 249 

Horns  dairy  cow 285 

Merino   416 

cattle    240 

Horse,  action  draft 106 

action  heavy  harness 154 

light  harness 143 

saddle    164 

age  of  the 31 

American   Saddle 167 

Anatomy  of  the 28 

Arm    draft 77 

Arms  and  forearms  light 

harness   137 

Astragalus 38 

back  draft 91 

Belgian    125 

body  draft   89 

heavy  harness 152 

light  harness 139 

saddle    163 

breeds  of  draft 123 

buttock    37 

cannon   79 

cannons  of  light  harness. .    137 

center  of  gravity  in 48 

chest  draft 90 

Clydesdale 126 

cob    156 

complexus  muscle 42 


580 


INDEX 


Page 
Horse,  correct  attitude  hind  leg  105 

croup    draft 95 

saddle    163 

digestive  system 43 

disposition 47 

ears   „  73 

eyes   71 

feet  of -^  83 

femur 37 

fetlock 81 

fibula 38 

flanks   94 

foot  of  light  harness 139 

forearm 77 

forehead    72 

form  of  draft 67 

heavy  harness 152 

light  harness 133 

French  coach 158 

gaits  of  the 53 

gaskin  draft 98 

general  appearance  draft.  65 

heavy  harness 151 

German    coach 159 

hackney    157 

head  of  draft 71 

light  harness 134 

heart    44 

heavy  harness  type,  judging  148 

height  draft 65 

light  harness 131 

hind  cannons 102 

feet 103 

fetlock 103 

pastern  draft 103 

hindquarters    94 

heavy  harness 153 

light  harness 141 

hips  draft 94 

hock  draft 99 

hoof  of 36 

humerus  of  the 36 

in  motion 48 

intestine 43 

Ischium 37 

joints  of 49 

judging  breeding  draft.  .  .  118 

judging  saddle  type  of.  ...  160 

kneecap 38 

knee  of 78 

knees  of  light  harness.  .  .  .  137 
light  harness  type,  judging  130 

liver 43 

loin  draft 91 

lungs 44 

man  and  the 26 

muscles  of...  40 


Page 

Horse,  muzzle,  draft 71 

neck  light  harness 135 

heavy  harness 152 

saddle 103 

nervous  system 45 

os  calcis 38 

park    156 

pastern  of 81 

pasterns  of  light  harness.  .  138 

pelvis  of 37 

Percheron   123 

point   hip    of 37 

position,  front  legs  and  feet 

of 87 

light  harness 139 

quality  heavy  harness 152 

in  the 68 

light  harness 133 

resemblances  between  bones 

of  man  and 38,  39 

ribs    92 

of  the 35 

runabout 156 

scale  of  points  of  light  har- 
ness    131 

score  card  for  draft 62 

heavy  harness 149 

saddle    160 

Shire   128 

skeleton  of  the 28 

skull  of  the 29 

shoulder  blade  of  the....  36 

draft    76 

heavy  harness 152 

light  harness 136 

saddle 163 

standard   bred 145 

sternum  or  breast  bone  of 

the 36 

stifle  joint 38 

stomach 43 

substance  in  the 68 

Suffolk 129 

tail  of 97 

saddle 164 

temperament 45 

draft    70 

heavy  harness 152 

light  harness 134 

thigh  draft 98 

three-gaited  saddle 166 

to  structure  skeleton,  rela- 
tionship of  speed  in.  ...  40 

Thoroughbred 167 

tibia 38 

trot,    draft 108 

type  and  character  with 

saddle 160 


INDEX 


581 


Page 

I  Torso,  types  and  classes  of...  .      61 

walk  of  the 53 

weight  of  draft 66 

light  harness 131 

withers  draft 89 

unsoundness,   diseases  and 

defects  in  the 196 

under   comparison,    weak 
and  strong  features  of.  .    113 

Huckle  bones 249 

Humerus  of 'the  horse..  36 


I 


International    Livestock    Judg- 
ing Contest 553 

Intestine   horse 43 

Intestines  of  hog 476 

ox    213 

Ischium  horse 37 


Jark,  action  of 181 

Andalusian   182 

body  of 180 

Catalonian   182 

Catalonian     o  r     American 

type,  score  card 175 

description  of  show 181 

forehand   of 179 

form  of 178 

general  appearance 176 

head    of 179 

height 177 

hindquarters  of 180 

Majorca 184 

Maltese 184 

Poitou 185 

quality  in  the 178 

scale  points 175 

spavin   200 

temperament  of 179 

weight 177 

Jacks  and  Jennets,  judging.  .  .  .  175 

Jennets,  judging  jacks  and.  .  .  175 

Jersey  bull,  scale  points 326 

cattle 323 

cow,  scale  points 327 

cows  and  heifers,  original 

scale  of  points  for 16 

Joints,  movements  limbs  and.  .  49 

horse 49 

Jowl  bacon  hog 536 

lard  hog 495 


Page 

Judge,  decision  of  the 11 

is  a  student  of  animal  form 

and  function,  the  efficient      7 
Judges    by    specializing    rather 
than  otherwise,  men  be- 
come efficient 10 

for  student  contests 554 

of  livestock,  demand  for 

expert 1:; 

Judging  bacon  type  swine r.:;i 

beef  animal,  method  in.  .  .    L'UT 

bulls 259 

cattle    for    breeding 259 

type  of  cattle  by  scale  of 

points 227 

breeding  draft  horses 118 

sheep 4:::; 

swine r»4L' 

cattle 209 

Contest,  National  Dairy 

Show  Students' 560 

rules  governing  livestock .  .    553 

time  in r.r.T 

dairy  cow,  method  in 274 

type  bulls  and  young  cattle  317 
cattle  by  scale  of  points.  .   272 
draft   or  power   type   of 
horse  by  scale  of  points.      61 

dual-purpose  cattle 350 

ewe 436 

feeder  sheep 410 

group  of  draft  horses,  first 

step  in Ill 

horses  heavy  harness  type  148 

light  harness  type 130 

jacks   and   jennets 175 

lard  type  swine  by  scale 

points 486 

mare  . 121 

Merino,  American  or  Class 

A  type 412 

Milch  goats 4(5(> 

mule   187 

mutton  Merino  or  Class  C 

type 420 

type  of  sheep  by  scale  of 

points 380 

ram 433 

saddle  type  of  horse 160 

sheep 361 

use  of  hands  in 370 

Shetland  pony 170 

stallion    118 

stocker  or  feeder  cattle.  .  .    '-M7 

swine 473 

young  dairy  cattle 319 

Jump 59 


582 

INDEX 

Page 

Page 

K 

Legs    and    feet    horse,    position 

front    .  .    . 

87 

Kemp  or  gare  

428 

beef  animal,  front  

944 

Kerry  cattle  

344 

dairy  cow  

?87 

scale  points  

346 

cow,  hind   

294 

Kidneys  of  ox  

212 

lard  hog,   front  

497 

Knee,  calf  

78 

hog,  hind  

504 

cap  horse  

.    38 

mutton  sheep,  front  

394 

horse   

78 

sheep,  hind  

399 

sprung  
Knees  of  light  harness  horse  .  .  . 

79 
137 

Lesson,  value  of  the  score  card 
Lever  of  first  class  

20 
49 

Knock-kneed  

89 

second  class  

50 

third  class  

50 

Light  harness  horse,  action.  ,  . 

143 

L 

arms  and  forearms  

137 

body   

13!) 

Lacteal    

297 

cannons  of  

137 

Lamb  carcass  cuts,  relative 

foot    of  

139 

values  of  mutton  and.  .  . 

378 

form     

133 

Lameness    

197 

head  

134 

Laminitis,  founder  or  

205 

height    

131 

Lard  hog,  back  

499 

hindquarters    

141 

belly  

501 

knees  of  

137 

body    

499 

neck  

135 

breast  

497 

quality    

133 

chest  

499 

pasterns  of  

l.-.S 

condition   

492 

position  front  

139 

ears   ,  

495 

scale  of  points  

131 

eyes    

495 

shoulders   

136 

face  

494 

temperament   

134 

flanks   

502 

weight  

131 

forequarters    

496 

type,  judging  horses  of  .  .  . 

130 

form   

489 

Limbs  and  joints,   movements. 

49 

front  legs  

497 

Lincoln  sheep  

458 

hair   

490 

scale  points  

459 

hams    

503 

Liver  of  hog  

476 

head  

494 

horse  

43 

hind  legs  

504 

ox    

212 

hindquarters  

502 

Livestock,   selecting  rings  of.  . 

557 

jowl   

495 

Live  weight  in   fat   cattle,  per 

loin   

500 

cent  carcass  to  

220 

neck  

496 

Loin  of  beef  

222 

quality   ,  

490 

bacon  hog  

538 

rump  

502 

beef  animal  

247 

sides  

501 

dairy  cow  

288 

skin   

490 

draft  horse  

91 

shoulder  

496 

lard  hog  

500 

weight  

487 

mutton  sheep  

397 

type  breeds  of  swine,  notes 

Long   wool  

374 

on   

511 

Low   spavin  

200 

type  swine  by  scale  points. 

Lungs  horse  

44 

judging   

486 

ox  

211 

Large  Yorkshire  swine  

548 

Length  of  fleece  or  staple  

429 

M 

Leicester  sheep  

454 

scale  points  

455 

Majorca  jack  

184 

Leg  horse,  correct  attitude  hind 

105 

Maltese  jack  

184 

mutton   

378 

Mammary  development  of  cow. 

295 

INDEX 


583 


Page 

Man  and  the  horse 26 

resemblances  between  bones 

of    38,  39 

relationship  of LV» 

use  of  horse  by 4s 

Mare,  conformation  of 122 

constitutional  vigor  of.  ...    122 

judging    121 

temperament  of 122 

sox  characlor  of 121 

Market  classes  of  mules 192 

Markings  Milch  goats,  color  and  470 
Meat,    physical    and    chemical 

character 218 

Merino,  American 461 

or  Class  A  type,  judging.  .    4.12 

body  Class  C 424 

Class  B  type 418 

Delaine   :{T4,  461 

distinctive     characteristics    • 

American   414 

fold  on  American 417 

forequarters   Class  C 42.1 

general  appearance  Class  C  422 
head  and  neck  Class  C.  .  .  .    422 

hindquarters  Class  C 424 

horns 416 

of  Class  A  type :574,  413 

or   Class   C    type,    judging 

mutton   420 

scale  points  American. 414,  415 

score  card  American 415 

Delaine  or  C  Type 421 

sheep    according    t  o    type, 

classification    412 

modern   trend   breeding.  .  .    420 
Method  in  judging  the  beef  ani- 
mal        227 

of  using  the  score  card.  .  .      18 

Middle  piece  of  pork 482 

wool    374 

Mine  mules 195 

Milch  goat 466 

quality  and  conditions.  .  .  .    469 

Saanen   471 

size  and  shape 468 

Toggenburg 471 

goats,   color  and   markings  470 

judging    466 

Milk  production,  blood  as  factor 

in 295 

secretion,  process  of 299 

veins 307 

wells 310 

Milking  qualities  of  goat 466 

Mule,  action  of 192 

conformation    of 189 

form  of .  .  .  .    190 


Page 

Mule,  head  of 191 

height    190 

hindquarters  of 191 

judging  the 187 

quality  in 190 

scale  of  points  for 188 

score  card  for 188 

temperament  of 191 

weight 190 

Mules  draft 194 

farm   195 

market  classes  of 192 

mine ; 195 

plantation    193 

Mulefoot  swine 528 

scale  points 529 

Muscle  horse,  couiplexus 42 

Muscles  of  horse 40 

Muscular  development  o  f  o  x  , 

external 211 

Mutton  and  lamb  carcass  cuts, 

relative  values  of 378 

carcass  and  its  cuts :\~~t 

leg  of 378 

Merino    or    Class    C    type, 

judging    420 

method  of  cutting  up  car- 
cass 01 375 

rack  of 378 

saddle  of 377 

sheep,  back 396 

body •;;>(•, 

brisket 394 

chest   :;'.)<; 

comparative  study  of 404 

condition 390 

flanks    397 

forequarters   394 

form  of 384 

front  legs 394 

head  and  neck :'>(.H 

hind  legs 399 

hindquarters    398 

hips 398 

loin  of 397 

neck  of 393 

quality  in 387 

ribs 397 

rump    398 

shoulder 394 

skin   388 

thighs    399 

twist    399 

wool  on 401 

type 374 

of  sheep  by  scale  of  points, 
judging 380 


584 


INDEX 


Page 

Muzzle  beef  animal 238 

dairy   cow 284 

draft  horse 71 

sheep 392 


N 


National  Dairy  Show  Students' 

Judging  Contest 560 

Navicular  disease 205 

Navel ' .   289 

Neck  bacon  hog 536 

hog,  head  and 535 

beef  cattle 240 

cow    262 

Class  C  merino,  head  and  422 

dairy  cow 285 

head  and 283 

draft  horse 74 

heavy  harness  horse 152 

lard  hog 496 

light  harness  horse 135 

mutton   sheep,   head  and 

391,   393 

saddle  horse 163 

vein  beef  animal 241 

Nervous  system  horse 45 


Oesophagus  horse 43 

Oil  or  yolk 430 

Organs  of  reproduction  of  sheep  365 

sheep,  digestive 365 

Os  calcis  horse 38 

Ox,  anatomy  of 209 

external  muscular  develop- 
ment of 211 

heart  of 211 

indications  of  age  of 213 

intestines  of 213 

kidneys  of 212 

leg  bones 210 

liver  of 212 

lungs  of 211 

ribs  of 210 

shoulder  blade • .  210 

skeleton  of 209 

skull  of 209 

spinal   column   of 209 

.  sternum  of 210 

stomach  of 211 

teeth  as  indications  of  age 

of - 214 

Oxford  Down  sheep 443 


Page 


Pace 55 

Pacing  standard 147 

Paddling 89 

Park  horse 156 

Pastern  of  horse 81 

draft  horse,  hind 103 

Pasterns  hog 498 

light  harness  horse 138 

Pelvic  arch 291 

Pelvis  of  horse 37 

ox 210 

Percheron  horse 123 

Physical  and  chemical   charac- 
ter of  meat 218 

composition  of  udder.  ....  298 

Pigeon-toed 89 

Placing  card  for  swine,   com- 
parative     509 

hogs  in  ring,  reasons  for.  .  509 

Plantation  mules 193 

Plate  piece  of  beef 225 

Point  of  hip,  horse 37 

Points  American  Merino,  scale 

414,  415 

Angora  goat,  scale 465 

Ayrshire  bull,  scale 340 

Ayrshire  cow  scale 341 

bacon  type  hog,   scale....  532 

beef  cattle,  scale  of 228 

Berkshire  swine,  scale. . . .  513 

Cheshire  swine,  scale 525 

scale 519 

Cheviot  sheep,  scale 450 

Cotswold  sheep,  scale 457 

cut  in  scoring,  the  expres- 
sion      23 

dairy  cow,  scale 275 

Delaine  Merino,  scale 421 

Devon  cattle,  scale 359 

Dexter  cattle,  scale 347 

dorset  Horn  sheep,  scale. .  448 

Duroc-Jersey  swine,  scale.  522 

Dutch  Belted  cattle,  scale.  344 

fat  sheep  or  wether,  scale.  382 
for  dual-purpose  cattle, 

scales  of 353 

mule,  scale  of 188 

Guernsey  bull,  scale 336 

cow,  fecale 337 

Hampshire  sheep,  scale.  . .  446 

Hampshire  swine,  scale. . .  527 

Hereford  cattle,  scale 268 

Holstein-Friesian  bull,  scale  330 

cow,  scale 332 

jack,    scale 175 

Jersey  bull,  scale 326 


INDKX 


585 


Points,  row,  scale 327 

judging  beef  type  of  rattle 

by  scale  of ^'27 

lard  type  swine  by  scale..  4X6 
mutton  type  sheep  by  scale 

of    .".so 

Kerry   cattle,   seal*1 346 

Large    Yorkshire    swine, 

scale ."..-» n 

Leicester  sheep,  scale1 45.". 

light  harness  horse,  scale  of  131 

Lincoln  sheep,  scale 459 

Mulefoot  swine,  scale 529 

Oxford  Down  sheep,  scale.  443 
Poland-China  swine,  scale.  515 
Red  Polled  cattle,  scale.  .  .  356 

saddle  horse,  scale 160 

scale  of 15 

Shetland  pony,  scale  of  .19,  170 
Shropshire  sheep,  scale  of.  442 
Southdown  sheep,  scale.  .  .  440 

Suffolk  sheep,  scale 451 

Tunis  sheep,  scale 453 

Poitou  jack 185 

Poland-China  swine 513 

scale  points 515 

Polled  Durham  cattle 266 

Poll  evil 207 

Polled  cattle,  red 355 

Pony,    Hackney 172 

judging  Shetland 170 

modern  type  Shetland....  171 
scale  of  points  of  Shetland 

19,  170 

types   179 

Welch   172 

Pork  carcass  and  its  cuts 479 

parts  of 480 

wholesale    cuts 480 

cuts,  grading   480 

relative  amounts  and  values  483 

middle   piece   of 482 

Porterhouse 222 

Position   front  legs  and  feet 

horse    87 

light  harness  horse 139 

Positions  assigned   a    r  i  n  g  o  f 

horses,  reasons  for 115 

Purpose  of  beef  animal,  final.  .   218 


Quality  bacon  hog 534 

beef  carcass   226 

heavy  harness  horse 152 

in  beef  animal 231 


Page 

Quality  dairy  cow 2xn 

horse    r»s 

jack     17H 

mule   I'.MI 

mutton  sheep ;;ST 

light  harness  horse 133 

udder 304 

wool  on  mutton  sheep....  401 

Quantity   of  wool   produced  by 

mutton  sheep 402 

Quarter-crack 205 

Quittor 206 


Rack    58 

of  mutton 378 

Ram,  breed  character 4:;t', 

breeding  capacity 4:',."> 

form  of 43r, 

judging  the 433 

sex  character  of 433 

size  of 435 

Rambouillet  sheep 462 

Reasons  for   comparative  plac- 

ings  of  mutton  sheep.  .  .    408 
placing  beef  cattle  in  ring  256 

hogs  in  ring 509 

positions  assigned  a  ring  of 

horses 115 

Red  Polled  cattle 355 

scale  points 356 

Relationship  of  man  to  the 

horse   26 

speed  in  horse  to  structure 

of  skeleton 40 

Reproduction  of  sheep,  organs  of  365 
Resemblances  between  bones  of 

man  and  horse 38,  39 

Rib-piece  of  beef 223 

Ribs  bacon  hog 539 

beef  animal 247 

dairy   cow 2S«.i 

horse   35,  92 

mutton  sheep 397 

ox 210 

Ring,  classes  and  groups  of  ani- 
mals in  show •"><>'•> 

horses,   reasons   for   posi- 
tions assigned  a 115 

reasons  for  placing  beef 

cattle  in 256 

hogs  in 509 

Rings  of  livestock,  selecting.  .  .    557 

Ringbone 203 

Roaring 200 


586 


INDEX 


Page 

Romney  Marsh  sheep 460 

Round  of  beef 223 

Rudimentary   teats 317 

Rules    for    hoys'    stock   judging 

contests 558 

governing    livestock    judg- 
ing contests 553 

Rump  hacon  hog 540 

beef  cattle    250 

dairy  cow 291 

lard  hog 502 

mutton  sheep 398 

Runabout  horse 156 


Saanen  goat 471 

Saddle  horse,  action 164 

American  167 

body  163 

croup 163 

neck 163 

score  card  for 160 

shoulders 163 

tail 164 

three-gaited  166 

type  and  character  with .  .  .  160 

of  mutton 377 

type  of  horse,  Judging.  .  .  .  160 
Sand-crack  205 

Scale  of  points 15 

American  Merino 414,  415 

Angora  goat 465 

Ayrshire  bull 340 

Ayrshire  cow 341 

bacon  type  hog 532 

for  beef  cattle 228 

Berkshire  swine 513 

Cheshire  swine 525 

Chester  White  swine 519 

Cheviot  sheep 450 

Cotswold  sheep 457 

dairy  cow 275 

Delaine  Merino 421 

Devon  cattle 359 

Dexter  cattle  347 

Dorset  Horn  sheep 448 

dual-purpose  cattle 353 

Duroc-Jersey  swine 522 

Dutch  Belted  cattle 344 

earliest  use  of 15 

fat  sheep,  or  wether 382 

Guernsey  bull 336 

Guernsey  cow 337 

Hampshire  sheep 446 

Hampshire  swine 527 

Hereford  cattle 268 

Holstein-Friesian  bull ....  330 


Scale  of  Points,  cow 

jack    

Jersey  bull    

Jersey  cow 

Jersey  cows  and  heifers, 
original  

judging  beef  type  of  cattle 
by 

judging  dairy  type  cattle  by 

draft  or  power  type  of 
horse  by 

lard  type  swine  by 

mutton  type  sheep  by 

Kerry  cattle 

Large  Yorkshire  swine.  .  .  . 

Leicester  sheep 

Lincoln  sheep 

light  harness  horse 

mule   

Mulefoot   swine 

Oxford  Down  sheep 

Poland-China   swine 

relative  values  of  parts  of. 

saddle  horse 

Shetland  pony 

Shropshire  sheep 

Southdown  sheep 

Suffolk  sheep 

systematic  arrangement  of 
the 

Tunis  sheep 

Score  card  American  Merino .  .  . 

and  its  use 

beef  cattle  or  steer 

dairy  cow 

Delaine  or  C  Type  Merino. 

draft  horse 

fat  sheep  or  wether 

heavy  harness  horses 

jack,  Catalonian  or  Ameri- 
can type 

lesson,  value  of  the 

light  harness  horse 

method  of  using  the 

mule   

saddle  horse 

of  an  animal,  value  of  the 
Scored,  systematic  examination 

of  sheep  to  be 

Scoring  animals,  use  of  figures 
in  

the  expression  "points  cut" 

in 

Secretion,  process  of  milk 

Secretions  dairy  animal 

Sex  character  boar 

ewe 

beef  bull 

beef  cow 


Page 
332 
175 
326 

1(5 

227 
272 

61 
486 
380 
346 
550 
455 
459 
131 
188 
529 
443 
515 

21 
160 
170 
442 
440 
451 

17 
453 
415 

15 

228 
275 
421 
62 
382 
149 

175 

20 

131 

18 
188 
160 

23 

3  SO 


23 
299 
280 
542 
436 
259 
262 


INDKX 


587 


Sex  character,  mare, 
rani    . 


sow   

stallion  

Shank  piece  of  beef 

Shape  Milch  goat,  size  and.  .  .  . 
Sheep,  age  of 

anatomy  of 

back  mutton 

body  mutton 

brisket  mutton 

chest  mutton    

Cheviot    

classification  of  domestic.  . 

comparison  card,  fat 

comparative  judging  of 
mutton 

study  of  mutton 

condition  mutton 

wool  mutton 

conformation  feeder 

Cotswold 

descriptive  notes  of  more 
important  breeds  of.  ... 

digestive   organs 

Dorset  Horn 

ears  of 

eyes  of 

face  of 

flanks  mutton 

fleece  on 

or  wool  of 

foot  glands  of 

forehead  of ....'. 

forequarters    mutton 

form  of  mutton 

front  legs  mutton 

Hampshire 

head  and  neck  mutton.  .  .  . 

hind  legs  mutton 

hindquarters    mutton 

hips    mutton 

how  to  handle  and  examine 

judging    

breeding   

feeder   

Leicester    

Lincoln    

loin  of  mutton 

modern  trend  breeding 
Merino 

muzzle 

neck  of  mutton 

Oxford  Down 

organs  of  reproduction  of. 

quality  wool  on  mutton.  .  . 


Page 
121 

4:;:; 
545 
118 
225 
4<iS 
363 
361 
396 
396 
394 
396 
44  8 
374 
407 

404 
404 
390 
403 
410 
456 

439 
365 
447 
392 
392 

392 

397 
371 

366 

;U;T 

.">!>2 

394 
384 

394 
445 
391 
399 
398 
398 
:;<;<> 
361 
43:5 
410 
454 
45S 
397 


420 
392 
393 
443 
365 
401 


Page 
Slice]),  quantity  wool   produced 

by  mutton  sheep 4O2 

Hambouillet    4<J2 

ribs   mutton :;'.»7 

rump  mutton .'IDs 

reasons    for    comparative 

placings  of  mutton 40S 

Romney  Marsh 460 

wether,  scale  of  points  fat.  382 

scale  points  Oxford  Down.  443 

Southdown    440 

shoulder  mutton :;s>4 

Shropshire    441 

skeleton    of .">iil 

skin  of  domestic 3»;r» 

mutton   :;ss 

Southdown    43!) 

Suffolk    450 

teeth  of 363 

thighs  mutton 399 

to  be  scored,  systematic  ex- 
amination of 380 

Tunis 452 

twist  mutton 399 

use  of  hands  in  judging.  .  370 

weight  fat 3s3 

wool  on  mutton 401 

Shetland  pony,  judging 170 

modern  type 171 

scale  of  points 19,  170 

Shields  in  hog 491 

Shire  horse 128 

Shorthorn  cattle 265 

Shoulder  bacon  hog 5  .".7 

beef  animal 241 

blade  of  the  horse 36 

ox 210 

lard  hog 496 

hog  carcass 4s:; 

Shoulders   dairy    cow 2sr, 

draft  horse 76 

heavy  harness  horse 152 

light  harness  horse l.",<; 

mutton  sheep .'!'.'  I 

saddle  horse 163 

vein  beef  animal 241 

Show  jack,  description 181 

ring,  age  classification  ani- 
mals in 567 

classes  and  groups  of  ani- 
mals in 

Shropshire  sheep 441 

scale  of  points 442 

Sidcbone   2<rj 

Sides  bacon  hog 5::n 

lard  hog 501 


'  588 


INDEX 


Sire,  Get  of 

Sirloin  

Size  and  shape  Milch  goat.  , 

aim  weight  beef  animal 

beef  bull .  . 


cow   

boar 

brood  sow 

dairy   bull 

cow,  weight  or. 

ewe 

ram    

stallion 

Skeleton  of  hog.  .  .  . 
horse  . 


ox , 

sheep  

Skin  hog 

color , 

lard  hog  

of  domestic  sheep, 
mutton  sheep 

Skull  of  the  horse. . 


ox 

Snout  bacon  hog 

Southdown  sheep 

scale  of  points 

Sow,  breed  characteristics. 

frame  brood 

sex  character  in 

size  brood 

temperament  brood.  .  . 
Spavin,  blind 

bog 

bone    

jack 


Specializing  rather  than  other- 
wise,  men  become  effi- 
cient judges  by 

Speed  in  horse  to  structure 
skeleton,  relationship  of 

Splint    

Spinal  column 

of  ox 

Splay-footed 

Stallion,  body  conformation  of 

the 

constitutional  vigor 

judging  the 

sex  character  of  the 

size  of 

temperament  of 

Standard  bred  horse  

of  excellence  of  Tamworth 

swine 

pacing 

trotting 


Page  Page 

569       Standards,  breed 18 

222  Steer,  score  card  for  beef  cattle 

468                     or 228 

229  Sternum   or   breastbone   of  the 

261                     horse 36 

263                ox    210 

544  Stifle  joint  horse 38 

546  Stocker  or  feeder  cattle,  judging  257 

310       Stomach  of  hog 476 

276                horse    43 

437               ox 212 

435       Stride 51 

119               elevation  of , 52 

473                length  of 52 

2S               rapidity  of 52 

200               sequence  or  order  of 52 

361                trueness  of 52 

477       Student  contest  judges 554 

491  contests,  duties  superinten- 

490                    dent 554 

366  contests,  rules  governing 

388                     contestants  in 555 

29  of  animal   form   and  func- 

209  tion,   the  efficient  judge 

536                    is  a 7 

439  Style  and  action  bacon  hog.  .  .  535 

440  Substance  in  the  horse 68 

547  Sub-types  of  cattle 217 

547       Suffolk  horse 129 

545  sheep 450 

546  scale  points 451 

545  Superintendent    students'    con- 

200  tests,  duties 554 

201  Swine,   Berkshire 511 

200  by  scale  points,  judging 

200                    lard  type 486 

200               Cheshire    524 

Chester  White 518 

common  types 484 

10  comparative  placing  card 

for 509 

40               study  of 507 

203               determining  age  of 474 

33               Duroc-Jersey   521 

2O9               Hampshire    525 

89                judging    473 

bacon  type 531 

119               breeding 542 

119                Large  Yorkshire 548 

118                Mulefoot 528 

118  notes  on  bacon  type  breeds 

119  of 548 

120  on  lard  type  breeds  of.  ...  511 

145  scale  points  Large  York- 

shire    550 

552               Poland-China   513 

147  Standard  of  excellence 

146  Tamworth 552 


INDEX 


Page 

Standard    of    excellence,    Turn 

worth   ;V)0 

Swiss    cuttle.    Brown .".•»>• 

System  of  the  animal,  circula- 
tory     296 


Tail-head  beef  animal 251 

dairy  cow 293 

horse 97 

saddle  horse 164 

Tarn  worth    swine 550 

standard  of  excellence.  .  .  .    552 

Teats 306 

rudimentary 317 

Teeth  as  indication  of  age  of  ox  214 

colt 31 

hog   474 

sheep 363 

Temperament  of  boar 543 

brood  sow 545 

dairy  bull 317 

cow 282 

draft  horse 70 

horse 45 

heavy  harness  horse 152 

light  harness  horse 134 

jack 179 

mare 122 

mule   191 

stallion    120 

Tenderloin  of  beef 222 

Tendons  horse 40 

Tnickness  beef  carcass 225 

Thign  beef  animal 251 

dairy  cow 294 

draft  horse 98 

Thighs  mutton  sheep 399 

Thoroughbred  horse 167 

Thoroughpin 202 

Three-gaited  saddle  horse 166 

Thrush     206 

Tibia  horse 38 

Time  in  judging  contests 557 

Toe  narrow 89 

wide 89 

Toes  hog 498 

Tougenburg  goat 471 

Trot 54 

draft  horse  at 108 

fox 59 

Trotting  standard 146 

Tunis  sheep 452 

scale   points 453 

Twist  mutton  sheep 399 


Pago 
Type,    classification    Merino 

sheep  according  to 412 

dairy  cow,  form  or 277 

dual-purpose i  ,ii 

Shetland  pony,  modern ....    171 
and  character  with  saddle 

horse   160 

Types  and  classes  of  horses.  .  .      61 

cattle,  sub- 217 

pony 170 

swine,  common 484 


U 


Udder  beef  cow 262 

form  of 300 

Physical  composition  of .  .  .  298 

quality    of 304 

TJnsoundness,   diseases  and  de- 
fects in  the  horse 196 

Use  lu  the  animal,  relationship 

of  form  to 1 

of  scale  of  points,  earliest.  15 


Value  score  of  an  animal 23 

Values  parts  of  scale  of  points, 

relative 21 

pork  ''uts,  relative  amounts 

and   483 

Vein  beef  animal,  shoulder. . . .  241 

beef  animal  neck 241 

Veins,  milk 307 

on  bull 319 

Vigor  beef  bull,  constitutional.  261 

dairy  bull 319 

mare,  constitutional 122 

stallion,  constitutional.  .  .  .  119 

Vilii 291 

w 

Walk,   high-stepping 54 

heavy  draft 54 

long,   striding 54 

of  drafter 106 

horse 5:> 

ordinary 54 

running 58 

short-stepping 54 

Wedge  form  dairy  cow 277 

Weight  bacon  hog 534 

beef  animal,  size  and 229 

fat  sheep  .• 383 


590 
Weight,  jack  

INE 

Page 
177 
487 
131 
191 
60 
270 
172 
310 

381 

382 
382 
89 
241 
280 
89 

(EX 

Wool,  condition  of  
crimp  of  . 

Page 
431 
427 
420 
374 
374 
374 
40:5 
401 

402 
401 
36G 

430 

548 
550 

lard  hog  •  
light  harness  horse  
mule     

fiber,   quality  
fine 

draft  horse  

long  

mutton   sheep,   condition  .  . 
mutton  sheep  
produced  by  mutton  sheep, 

Wells    milk       

Wether,  general  appearance  of 

fat 

quality    

scale  points  fat  sheep  or  .  . 
score  card  for  fat  sheep  or 

Y 

Yolk    oil  or        

Withers  beef  animal  
dairy  cow              

Yorkshire  swine   large  

draft  horse.  . 

scale  points,  Large  

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ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY  WILL  INCREASE  TO 
50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH  DAY  AND  TO  $1.00  ON  THE 
SEVENTH  DAY  OVERDUE. 


NOV  1  1  I96C1 

NQV  1  1  1968 
8KTD  OCT  2  9  1388 


201368 


REC'D  NOV  1  8  1968 


Book  Slip-20m-5,'59  (A2537s4)458 


" 


JEJ 


Jud^ins:  farm  animals 


3F115 


OCT 


0  lfi. 


*»t 


S 


DMY10 


.^L^- 


»0'V 


Y,  BEANCH  OS1  THE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE,  DAVIS 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


